MODULE 1: Introduction to Networking

Network Devices
Network devices are communication tools that are essential for interaction
between hardware on a computer network. These devices facilitate the
transmission and reception of data securely and efficiently.

They play a crucial role in enabling seamless communication among internet-

compatible electronic devices, such as fax machines, computers, printers, etc.

Some examples of network devices include hubs, routers, bridges, repeaters,

switches, gateways, load balancers, and modems.

Functions of Network Devices

Each networking device has a specific feature or role, contributing to the overall
efficiency and functionality of the network and its segments.

Here are three critical functions of network devices:

Managing Traffic: Network devices like routers and firewalls manage and
control traffic flow, allowing administrators to block unauthorized connection
requests and maintain a secure network environment.

Device Connectivity: Devices like routers and gateways play a crucial role in
connecting different networks, using unique protocols, and enabling
communication between diverse systems with data format translation.

Network Segmentation: Network devices enable the segmentation of networks

into distinct zones or subnets, helping administrators reduce the impact of
cyberattacks by limiting unauthorized movement within the network.

Types of Network Devices

The following are some of the types of network devices:

1. Hub
A hub is a simple connectivity device that connects cables, forming a network
segment. It serves as a repeater for long-distance data and retransmits without
filtering. It handles both digital and analog data when configured appropriately.

2. Switch
A switch is more advanced than a hub. It intelligently forwards data based on
hardware addresses. Switches enhance network efficiency and security by making
forwarding decisions using TCP/IP protocol headers. Additionally, multilayer
switches can function as both a switch and a router.

3. Router
Routers can filter and forward data using logical addresses like IP addresses.
They store network information, act as packet-filtering firewalls, and play a vital
role in controlling and optimizing network traffic.

4. Bridge
A bridge is a networking device that filters and forwards packets based on
physical addresses, connecting different network segments. It manages data flow
between segments and is beneficial for dividing extensive networks into smaller
sections.

5. Gateway
A gateway acts as a “gate” between autonomous networks with different routing
algorithms. It can promote traffic flow, translating data formats between
networks.

6. Repeater
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies received signals and extends
signal transmission over longer distances. It is specifically beneficial for standard
LAN cables.
 Types of Network Topology
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements like nodes, links, or
devices in a computer network. Common types of network topology include bus, star,
ring, mesh, and tree topologies, each with its advantages and disadvantages.
Types of Network Topology
Table of Content
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
Point to Point Topology
Point-to-point topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of the
sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes, in which
one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point provides high
bandwidth.

Poin
t to Point Topology
Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular
channel. Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
 Mesh Topology
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh
topology, the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In
Figure , there are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of
ports required by each device is 5. The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N C 2 i.e.
N(N-1)/2. In Figure, there are 6 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of links required is 6*5/2 = 15.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various internet
service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels. This topology is
also used in military communication systems and aircraft navigation systems.
Star Topology
In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This
hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub
can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the
same time the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have
repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision
Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access), etc.
 Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology

 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office
where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used in
wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
Bus Topology
Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a
non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes. In Bus
Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN
ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

Bu
s Topology
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines
are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support
up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build
small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques
are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this,
various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha,
CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also used in
cable television networks.
Ring Topology
In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two neighboring
devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of
nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring
topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the
100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual
Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the
workstations to transmit the data.

Ring Topology
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the
whole topology.
 Less secure.
Tree Topology
Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical
flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic
Configuration) are used.

Tree Topology
In tree topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to
the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the
secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-
robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization. At the
top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments or divisions
(child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own hierarchy, with managers
overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The team members (leaf nodes) are at
the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to their respective managers and departments.
Hybrid Topology
Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have
studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form. It
means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination
of various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol
that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology
The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen it contains a
combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible .
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices .
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The
network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected to the
backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be a bus or ring
topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless access points also
create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid topology allows for efficient
communication between different buildings while providing flexibility and
redundancy within each building.

Types of Computer Networks

A computer network is a system that connects many independent computers to share
information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily. It is a collection of two or more
computer systems that are linked together. A network connection can be established
using either cable or wireless media. Hardware and software are used to connect
computers and tools in any network.
Types of Computer Networks
Computer networks are classified based on several factors such as geographical area,
ownership, architecture, topology, and transmission technology. The below is the
classification of the networks :

Classification Based on Geographical Area

This is the most common way of classifying networks below are the different types :

1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

PAN is the most basic type of computer network. It is a type of network designed to
connect devices within a short range, typically around one person. It allows your
personal devices, like smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearables, to communicate
and share data with each other. PAN offers a network range of 1 to 10 meters from
person to device providing communication. Its transmission speed is very high with
very easy maintenance and very low cost.
Examples of PAN are Bluetooth connection between a phone and wireless earbuds ,
Infrared communication between TV and remote.
 2. Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN is the most frequently used network. It is a computer network that connects
computers through a common communication path, contained within a limited area,
that is, locally. A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a
server. The two important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and
Wi-fi. It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance
and low cost.
Examples of LAN are Wi-Fi in a home or school, wired LAN in a company's office

3. Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is bigger than a LAN but smaller than a MAN. This is a type of computer
network that is usually used in places like a school or colleges. This network covers
a limited geographical area that is, it spreads across several buildings within the
campus. CAN mainly use Ethernet technology with a range of few kilometers. Its
transmission speed is very high with a moderate maintenance cost and moderate
cost.
Examples of CAN are networks that cover schools, colleges, buildings, etc.
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer
network that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared
communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area. This network mainly
uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range from 5km to 50km. Its
transmission speed is average. It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high
cost.
Examples of MAN are networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area
within multiple buildings, etc.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a large
geographical distance through a shared communication path. It is not restrained to a
single location but extends over many locations. WAN can also be defined as a
group of local area networks that communicate with each other with a range above
50km. Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed is
very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
Examples of WAN are the Internet (largest WAN), Banking networks linking global
branches
Network Switching
 • Switching is the process of transferring data packets from one device to
another in a network, or from one network to another, using specific devices
called switches.
• for example, accessing the Internet from your computer device, whenever a
user requests a webpage to open, the request is processed through switching of
data packets only.
• Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model.
Types of Switching
• Message Switching
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching

Circuit
Switching in Computer Network
• The dedicated path/circuit established between the sender and receiver
provides a guaranteed data rate.
• or connection is established between the source and destination .
• This connection receives the complete bandwidth of the network until the data
is transferred completely.
• Data can be transmitted without any delays once the circuit is established.
• The telephone system network is one of the examples of Circuit switching.
Phases of Circuit Switching
 Circuit Establishment: A dedicated circuit between the source and destination
is constructed via a number of intermediary switching center's. Communication
signals can be requested and received when the sender and receiver
communicate signals over the circuit.
 Data Transfer: Data can be transferred between the source and destination once
the circuit has been established. The link between the two parties remains as
long as they communicate.
 Circuit Disconnection: Disconnection in the circuit occurs when one of the
users initiates the disconnect. When the disconnection occurs, all intermediary
linkages between the sender and receiver are terminated.
Advantages of Circuit Switching
 The main advantage of circuit switching is that a committed transmission
channel is established between the computers which give a guaranteed data rate.
 In circuit switching, there is no delay in data flow because of the dedicated
transmission path.
 Reliability: Circuit switching provides a high level of reliability since the
dedicated communication path is reserved for the entire duration of the
communication. This ensures that the data will be transmitted without any loss
or corruption.
 Quality of service: Circuit switching provides a guaranteed quality of service,
which means that the network can prioritize certain types of traffic, such as
voice and video, over other types of traffic, such as email and web browsing.
 Security: Circuit switching provides a higher level of security compared to
packet switching since the dedicated communication path is only accessible to
the two communicating parties. This can help prevent unauthorized access
and data breaches.
 Ease of management: Circuit switching is relatively easy to manage since the
communication path is pre-established and dedicated to a specific
communication. This can help simplify network management and reduce the risk
of errors.
 Compatibility: Circuit switching is compatible with a wide range of devices
and protocols, which means that it can be used with different types of networks
and applications. This makes it a versatile technology for various industries and
use cases.
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
 Limited scalability: Circuit switching is not well-suited for large-scale
networks with many nodes, as it requires a dedicated communication path
between each pair of nodes. This can result in a high degree of complexity and
difficulty in managing the network.
 Vulnerability to failures: Circuit switching relies on a dedicated
communication path, which can make the network vulnerable to failures, such as
cable cuts or switch failures. In the event of a failure, the communication path
must be re-established, which can result in delays or loss of data.
 Limited Flexibility: Circuit switching is not flexible as it requires a dedicated
circuit between the communicating devices. The circuit cannot be used Waste of
Resources for any other purpose until the communication is complete, which
limits the flexibility of the network.
 Waste of Resources: Circuit switching reserves the bandwidth and network
resources for the duration of the communication, even if there is no data being
transmitted. This results in the wastage of resources and inefficient use of the
network.
 Expensive: Circuit switching is an expensive technology as it requires dedicated
communication paths, which can be costly to set up and maintain. This makes it
less feasible for small-scale networks and applications.
 Susceptible to Failure: Circuit switching is susceptible to failure as it relies on
a dedicated communication path. If the path fails, the entire communication is
disrupted. This makes it less reliable than other networking technologies, such
as packet switching.
 Not suitable for high traffic: Circuit switching is not suitable for high traffic,
where data is transmitted intermittently at irregular intervals. This is because a
dedicated circuit needs to be established for each communication, which can
result in delays and inefficient use of resources.
 Delay and latency: Circuit switching requires the establishment of a dedicated
communication path, which can result in delay and latency in establishing the
path and transmitting data. This can impact the real-time performance of
applications, such as voice and video.
 High cost: Circuit switching requires the reservation of resources, which can
result in a high cost, particularly in large-scale networks. This can make circuit
switching less practical for some applications.
 No prioritization: Circuit switching does not provide any mechanism for
prioritizing certain types of traffic over others.

Packet Switching
 Method of transferring data to a network in the form of packets.
 the data is broken into small pieces of variable length, called Packet.
 transfer the file fast and efficiently over the network and minimize the
transmission latency(time for data transfer),
 At the destination, all these small parts (packets) have to be reassembled,
belonging to the same file.
 A packet is composed of a payload and various control information.
 No pre-setup or reservation of resources is needed.
 uses the Store and Forward technique while switching the packets
 while forwarding the packet each hop first stores that packet then forwards.
 HOP: the movement of a data packet from one network device (like a router or
switch) to another
 beneficial because packets may get discarded at any hop for some reason.
 More than one path is possible between a pair of sources and destinations.
 Each packet contains the Source and destination address using which they
independently travel through the network.
 In other words, packets belonging to the same file may or may not travel through
the same path.
 If there is congestion at some path, packets are allowed to choose different
paths possible over an existing network
 Each packet contains two parts that is Header and Payload,
 the header on each packet conatian routing and control data..
  Payload :the actual data being transmitted within a network packet


Advantages of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching
 More efficient in terms of bandwidth, since the concept of reserving a circuit is
not there.
 Minimal transmission latency.
 More reliable as a destination can detect the missing packet.
 More fault tolerant because packets may follow a different path in case any link
is down, Unlike Circuit Switching.
 Cost-effective and comparatively cheaper to implement
 Disadvantage of Packet Switching over Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching doesn’t give packets in order, whereas Circuit Switching
provides ordered delivery of packets because all the packets follow the same
path.
 Since the packets are unordered, we need to provide sequence numbers for each
packet.
 Complexity is more at each node because of the facility to follow multiple paths.
 Transmission delay is more because of rerouting
 OSI Model
o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that
describes how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network
function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural
model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks.
Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

o The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
o The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related
issues, and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is
closest to the end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact
with the software applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above
another layer.
o The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The
data link layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and
software. The physical layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest
 to the physical medium. The physical layer is mainly responsible for placing
the information on the physical medium.

7 Layers of OSI Model

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

1) Physical layer

o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits
from one node to another node.
 o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex,
half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more
devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides
on a local network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to
the frame. The header which is added to the frame contains the hardware
destination and source address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination
address mentioned in the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It
is the technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the
sides so that no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such
as a server with higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station,
with lower processing speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC
(Cyclic Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which
is added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any
error seems to occurr, then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the
retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.

3) Network Layer

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on

the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based
on the network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to
provide the routing services within an internetwork.
 o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer
protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the

network layer. It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the
header of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it
determines the best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the
destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and
converts them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is
achieved by internet protocol (IP).

4) Transport Layer

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the
order in which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units
known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over

the internet.
 o It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
o When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol
divides the data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment
travels over the internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in
different orders at the destination. The transmission control protocol
reorders the packets in the correct order at the receiving end.

o User Datagram Protocol

o User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.

o It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not
send any acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does
not wait for any acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol
unreliable.

Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously

due to this reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not
only from one computer to another computer but also from one process to
another process. The transport layer adds the header that contains the address
known as a service-point address or port address. The responsibility of the
network layer is to transmit the data from one computer to another computer
and the responsibility of the transport layer is to transmit the message to the
correct process.
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the
message from the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments,
and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies
each segment. When the message has arrived at the destination, then the
transport layer reassembles the message based on their sequence numbers.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-
oriented service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats
each segment as an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to
reach the destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with
the transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets. In
connection-oriented service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error
control is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender
transport layer ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5) Session Layer
 o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog
between two processes or we can say that it allows the communication
between two processes which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the
data in a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of
data, then the transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This
process is known as Synchronization and recovery.

6) Presentation Layer

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
 o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the

form of character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use
different encoding methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability
between the different encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-
dependent format into a common format and changes the common format into
receiver-dependent format at the receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a
process of converting the sender-transmitted information into another form
and sends the resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it
reduces the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very
important in multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7) Application Layer

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to

access network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer

allows a user to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from
a computer and to manage the files in a remote computer.
o Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding
and storage.
 o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources
and is used to provide that global information about various objects.

TCP/IP model

o The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.

o The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
o The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport
layer, network layer, data link layer and physical layer.
o The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface,
internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the first four layers
of the OSI model and these four layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a
single layer called the application layer.
o TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of
them provides specific functionality.

Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more
lower-level protocols.

Functions of TCP/IP layers:

Network Access Layer

o A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.

 o A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer
defined in the OSI reference model.
o It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
o This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two
devices on the same network.
o The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into
frames transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical
addresses.
o The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame
relay.

Internet Layer

o An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

o An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
o The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any
network, and they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

Following are the protocols used in this layer are:

IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the
entire TCP/IP suite.

Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:

o IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP

addresses. The IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to
identify the device and to provide internetwork routing.
o Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data
is to be transmitted.
o Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from
the transport layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and
received securely, it encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
o Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP
datagram by data link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit
(MTU). If the size of IP datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP
protocol splits the datagram into smaller units so that they can travel over the
local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender or intermediate
router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
o Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN,
MAN, WAN, it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are
 on the distant network, then the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be
accomplished by routing the IP datagram through various devices such as
routers.

ARP Protocol

o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

o ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address
from the IP address.
o The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:

o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of

the device, it broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP
request and process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP
address and sends back its physical address in the form of ARP reply.
The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory and
to the datagram header

ICMP Protocol

o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

o It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding
datagram problems back to the sender.
o A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a
router is unable to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as
disabled links, a device is on fire or network congestion, then the ICMP
protocol is used to inform the sender that the datagram is undeliverable.
o An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:

o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is

reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination
device is responding or not.

o The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not
correct them. The responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
o ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate
routers because the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and
destination but not of the router that it is passed to.
Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of
data which is being sent over the network.

The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and
Transmission control protocol.

o User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of

transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the
error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol
reports the error to the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the
application program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address
of the application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram
in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only
checksum; it does not contain any ID of a data segment.

o Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

 o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is
active for the duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the
damaged frames. Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be
received and acknowledged before the transmission is considered to be
completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units
known as segment, and each segment contains a sequence number
which is required for reordering the frames to form an original
message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them
based on sequence numbers.

Application Layer

o An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

o It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
o This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
o When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another
application layer, it forwards its data to the transport layer.
o There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot
be placed inside the application layer except those who interact with the
communication system. For example: text editor cannot be considered in
application layer while web browser using HTTP protocol to interact with the
network where HTTP protocol is an application layer protocol.

Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:

o HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us
to access the data over the world wide web. It transfers the data in the form of
plain text, audio, video. It is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has
the efficiency to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps
from one document to another.
o SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a
framework used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
o SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol
that supports the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This
protocol is used to send the data to another e-mail address.
o DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify
the connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the
 names instead of addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the
address is known as Domain Name System.
o TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the
connection between the local computer and remote computer in such a way
that the local terminal appears to be a terminal at the remote system.
o FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet
protocol used for transmitting the files from one computer to another
computer.