CHAPTER - 2

Aristotle’s classification

Earlier plants and animals were classified based on how they were used by man.

• Aristotle, first attempted to classify organisms on scientific basis - morphology and

autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• He classified : plants into trees, shrubs & herbs and
animals into 2 groups, those with red blood and those without red blood.
• This is a very basic and earliest classification.
 Two-Kingdom Classification
• It was proposed by Carolus Linnaeus (1758), credited for giving actual 2 kingdom classification
• This system classifies organisms into Two Kingdoms- Kingdom Plantae & Kingdom Animalia.
• Kingdom Plantae included all plants and Kingdom Animalia includes all animals (autotrophs and
heterotrophs).
Drawbacks of 2-kingdom classification - couldn’t explain many concepts
● Did not distinguish between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes. Prokaryotes (Bacteria, cyanobacteria) &
eukaryotes (fungi, mosses, ferns, gymnosperms & angiosperms) were included under same kingdom
Plantae. This classification was based on the presence of cell wall but cell wall composition varies which
was not considered. E.g. Cell wall composition in fungi is chitin and in green plants, it is cellulose.
Prokaryotes & eukaryotes are widely differed in other features also.
● Included unicellular & multicellular organisms in same group.
E.g. Chlamydomonas (unicellular) & Spirogyra ( multicellular) were placed under algae.

● Did not differentiate between heterotrophic fungi and autotrophic green plants.
● Where to place Euglena and Fungi.
 Five Kingdom Classification
• It is proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969). In use even today.
• It includes : K-Monera, K-Protista, K-Fungi, K-Plantae & K-Animalia.
• For the first time, fungi was added. It is a Natural system of classification.
• This classification is based on -
cell structure ( cell type, nucleus, cell wall…) , body organisation ( cell level / tissue level
or organ level), mode of nutrition, reproduction & phylogenetic relationships.
 Six-Kingdom / Three Domain Classification
- This system of classification was proposed by Carl Woese in 1990.
- This system classifies organisms into three domains - the Archaea, the Bacteria and the Eukarya
- Domain is the highest taxonomic rank in the hierarchical biological classification system,
kingdom level. Also called super kingdom.
KINGDOM MONERA
 KINGDOM MONERA (BACTERIA)
● Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant
microorganisms.
● They are prokaryotic and possess cell wall.
● Body organisation is cellular type. Body structure is simple but exhibit complex behaviour and
extensive metabolic diversity. membrane bound organelles are absent.
● They live in extreme habitats such as soil, hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans. Many
are within other living organisms as parasites.
● Shape of the cell varies - circular, rod shape, comma shaped and spiral
● Some are autotrophic and most bacteria are heterotrophic.

Autotrophic - synthesise food from inorganic substrates. They are of two types - Chemosynthetic
and Photosynthetic.

Heterotrophic - depend on other organisms or dead organic matter for food. They are of two types
- Parasitic and Saprophytic.

Reproduction is by binary fission, spore formation and by a sort of sexual reproduction where
primitive DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another.
● Bacteria are classified into 4 categories based on their shape:

Coccus (Spherical)

Bacillus (Rod-shaped)

Vibrium (Comma-shaped)

Spirillum (Spiral)

for exam( Learn diagrams)

learn only this diagram
Binary fission
Bacteria / Monera includes 2 groups : Archaebacteria and Eubacteria.

Archaebacteria :
• Ancient group of bacteria, since life originated.
• They are prokaryotic. They are anaerobic.
• They have the ability to live in harshest habitat due to their different cell wall
structure (pseudo muramic acid). They live in extreme hot, salty or acidic and
anaerobic conditions .
• Reproduction is by binary fission.
• Based on their habitats, archaebacteria are classified into:
1. Halophiles
2. Thermoacidophiles
3. Methanogens
 Halophiles Thermoacidophiles Methanogens
Live in extreme salty areas (Dead Live in hot springs, areas with Live in marshy areas , in guts of
sea, The Great salt lake). high temperature and high acidic ruminant animals like cows and
conditions. buffaloes , in intestine of animals.
They live in O2 free environment.
They are responsible for
production of methane (biogas)
from dung of these animals.
 Eubacteria :

• Also called true bacteria

• They are characterised by rigid cell wall (made up of Murein - peptidoglycan) and a
flagellum (in motile bacteria)
• Include Autotrophic and Heterotrophic bacteria
• Autotrophs are of two types - photosynthetic autotrophs and Chemosynthetic
autotrophs.
• Heterotrophs are of two types - Parasitic and Saprophytic.
 Photosynthetic autotrophs :

-Utilises light energy for ATP / food production

- Include Cyanobacteria / blue green algae. E.g. Nostoc, Anabaena

- Contain Chl-a, similar to green plants

- Unicellular or filamentous. Fresh water , marine or terrestrial in habitat.

- Solitary or Colonial. Colonial forms are surrounded by gelatinous sheath.

- Some are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in specialised cells called

Heterocysts

- They often form blooms in polluted water bodies

( learn Nostoc diagram )
(blue pigment - phycobilin , red pigment - phycoerythrin , yellow pigment - carotenoid, green-chlorophyll)

Nostoc

vegetative cell
Chemosynthetic autotrophs :

- Oxidises various inorganic substances like nitrates, nitrites and ammonia and use the
released energy for ATP synthesis
- They play a great role in recycling nutrients like N2 , P, Fe and S
- E.g. - all nitrogen fixing bacteria - Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus , Nitrobacter, etc

Nitrococcus
 Heterotrophic Bacteria :

- Depends on other organisms for their nutrition

- They are of two types - Parasitic and Saprophytic (and symbiotic)

- Abundant in nature and majority are decomposers

- They play significant role in human life:

- help in making curds from milk - Lactobacillus

- production of antibiotics - Streptomycin (Streptomyces griseus)

- Nitrogen fixation in roots of legumes - Rhizobium (symbiotic)

- Some are pathogenic causing diseases in plants (citrus canker) and animals (cholera, typhoid, tetanus)

Rhizobium
Streptomyces griseus)

Vibrio cholerae Salmonella typhi

citrus canker Clostridium tetani
Xanthomonas axonopodis.
 Mycoplasma

• They are organisms without a cell wall.

• They are the smallest living cells known.
• They can survive without oxygen.
• Many are pathogenic in animals and plants.
• The common animal disease is pleuro-pneumonia. (hence called PPLO -
Pleuropneumonia Like Organisms)
 KINGDOM PROTISTA
- Kingdom Protista includes all single-celled eukaryotes.

- This kingdom forms a link with plants, animals and fungi , hence said to be “Taxonomic misfits”
since they don't have their own well defined features.

- Protists are primarily aquatic.

- The cell contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. cells may be
naked or covered by cell wall or pellicle.

- They may be photosynthetic, ingestive (holozoic) or absorptive.

- Have flagella or cilia, thus members are motile. Some exhibit pseudopodia and pellicular
contractions for locomotion.

- They reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote
formation.

- Kingdom Protista is classified into - Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids,

Slime moulds and Protozoans.
•
I. Chrysophytes
• They are aquatic, found in freshwater and marine environments.
• They are microscopic and float passively in water currents (plankton).
• Most of them are photosynthetic.
• It includes diatoms (golden brown algae) & desmids (golden algae).
( golden colour is due to brown pigment- fucoxanthin and oil droplets)

• Diatoms: They have cell walls forming two thin overlapping shells, which fit together as in a soap
box. Cell walls are embedded with silica which makes the walls indestructible. Large amount of cell
wall deposits of diatoms are left behind in their habitat which accumulates. Accumulation of cell wall
deposits of diatoms over billions of years in their habitats is known as ‘diatomaceous earth’.
This is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.
• Diatoms are the chief ‘producers’ in the oceans.
 II. Dinoflagellates
• Mostly marine and photosynthetic.

• They appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red based on the main pigments in cells.

• Cell wall has stiff cellulose plates on the outer surface. There is a furrow between the anterior part of cell
wall and posterior part of cell wall.

• Most of them have 2 flagella; one lies longitudinally towards posterior part and the other transversely in a
furrow between wall plates.

• They multiply rapidly (binary fission) and make the ocean appear coloured.

• Red dinoflagellates (E.g. Gonyaulax) undergo rapid multiplication so that the sea appears red (red tides).
Toxins released by such large numbers can kill other marine animals such as fishes.
 III. Euglenoids
● Mainly freshwater organisms found in stagnant water.
● Instead of cell wall, they have a protein rich layer called pellicle. Pellicle makes
their body flexible.
● They have 2 flagella, a short and a long one.
● They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight. When deprived of sunlight
they behave like heterotrophs by predating on other smaller organisms.
● The pigments of Euglenoids are identical to those of higher plants.
● E.g. Euglena.
 IV. Slime Moulds

• They are saprophytic protists.

• They move over decaying twigs and leaves engulfing organic matter.
• They feed on microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and yeast. They decompose dead organic
matter.
• Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium which may grow and
spread over several feet.
• During unfavourable conditions, the plasmodium differentiates and forms fruiting bodies
bearing spores at their tips.
• Spores possess thick true walls. They are extremely resistant and survive for many years. The
spores are dispersed by air currents.
 V. Protozoans

• They are heterotrophs - live as predators or parasites.

• They are believed to be primitive relatives of animals.

There are 4 major groups of Protozoans based on locomotor organelles

• Amoeboid Protozoans
• Flagellated Protozoans
• Ciliated Protozoans
• Sporozoans
Amoeboid Flagellated Sporozoans
Protozoans Protozoans Ciliated • They include diverse
organisms which
•Live in fresh water, • Free-living or Protozoans have an infectious
sea water or moist parasitic.
•Aquatic, actively move spore-like stage in
soil.
• They have flagella. using cilia. their life cycle.
•They move and
• Parasitic forms cause • They are non-motile
capture prey by •They have a cavity
putting out diseases. protozoans.
(gullet) that opens to
pseudopodia (false • E.g. Trypanosoma outside of the cell E.g. Plasmodium
feet). Trypanosoma causes surface. (malarial parasite) . It
E.g. Amoeba. Sleeping sickness. •Due to the movement
causes malaria.
•Marine forms have of cilia, water with food
silica shells on their enters into gullet.
surface.
E.g. Paramecium
•Some are parasites.
E.g. Entamoeba. (parasitic to aquatic species)
causes Amoebic
dysentry.