Week 4
Storage Units, Primary and Secondary Memories and their types, RAM and its Types,
Cache, Hard Disks, RAID, Optical Disk Storages (DVD, CD ROM), flash memory storage
systems (memory cards and readers, USB flash drives) Other types of storage systems
(network and cloud storage system, smart cards)
Storage unit/ Memory unit:
Storage units in computers are used to measure and represent the amount of data that can be
stored.
Basic Units:
Unit Symbol Size
Smallest unit of data (0
Bit b
or 1)
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1,024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1,024 KB
Gigabyte GB 1,024 MB
Terabyte TB 1,024 GB
Petabyte PB 1,024 TB
Types of Computer Memory
Computer memory is divided into two main categories:
(a) Primary Memory
(b) Secondary Memory
Primary Memory:
Primary memory is the main storage of the computer that holds data and instructions currently
being used or processed by the CPU. It provides fast, direct access to the processor. It includes
both volatile (temporary) and non-volatile (permanent) memory.
Volatile memory (like RAM) loses its data when power is turned off.
Non-volatile memory (like ROM) retains data even when the computer is powered off.
Examples: RAM, ROM, Cache memory.
Classification of Primary Memory
Primary memory can be broadly classified into two parts:
1. Read-Only Memory (ROM)
2. Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is where your computer temporarily stores data that the CPU
needs to access quickly. It allows your system to run programs and processes efficiently.
Types of RAM:
1. DRAM (Dynamic RAM):
o Data Refreshing: DRAM needs to refresh its data every few milliseconds to
keep it, as its charge leaks over time.
o Structure: It’s made of capacitors and transistors, which are cheaper to produce.
o Usage: DRAM is widely used in most computers, laptops, and servers because
it's cost-effective and can store more data.
o Speed: Slower than SRAM, but sufficient for everyday computing tasks.
2. SRAM (Static RAM):
o Data Retention: SRAM holds data as long as the power is on without needing
constant refreshing.
o Structure: It uses multiple transistors(flip-flop circuits) to store data, which
makes it faster.
o Usage: SRAM is used in high-speed cache memory in CPUs and other places
where quick access is crucial.
o Cost: More expensive and takes up more space on chips, so it's used less
frequently compared to DRAM.
Key Difference:
Feature DRAM (Dynamic RAM) SRAM (Static RAM)
Basic Uses one transistor and one Uses multiple transistors (flip-
Component capacitor per memory cell. flops) per memory cell.
Stores data as an electric Stores data using flip-flops (stable
Data Storage charge in capacitors (which circuits that hold data without
leaks over time). refreshing).
No refreshing needed as data
Needs constant refreshing to
Data Refresh stays as long as power is
maintain data.
supplied.
Slower due to refreshing Faster since it doesn’t require
Speed
process. refreshing.
Cheaper to produce (simple More expensive (complex design,
Cost
design, more density). less density).
Used as main memory (RAM) in Used as cache memory inside the
Usage
computers. CPU.
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is used to store data that doesn’t need to be changed. It contains
important programs, like the bootstrap program, which starts the computer and loads the
operating system. Data stored in ROM is permanent and cannot be altered.
Types of ROM:
ROM is divided into four main types based on how they work:
1. MROM (Masked ROM):
o This is hardwired and programmed during manufacturing.
o Once data is written, it cannot be changed at all.
2. PROM (Programmable ROM):
o This type can be programmed by the user only once.
o You buy it blank and write your data, but once it's written, you can’t change it.
3. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):
o This type can be erased and rewritten.
o To erase it, you expose the chip to ultraviolet (UV) light, which clears the data
so you can write new data.
4. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM):
o This type can also be erased and reprogrammed using electrical signals.
o However, you can only erase one byte at a time, making it slower to reprogram
compared to EPROM.
Here’s a summary of the key differences between the types of ROM:
Type of
Erasure Method Reprogramming Cost Usage
ROM
Hardwired during Used for permanent
MROM Not reprogrammable Lowest cost
manufacturing data
Moderate Custom data
PROM Not erasable Can be programmed once
cost storage
Can be reprogrammed Applications
EPROM Erased by UV light Higher cost
after erasure needing updates
Can be reprogrammed Highest Firmware storage,
EEPROM Electrically erased
byte by byte cost settings
Cache memory
Cache memory is a small, high-speed storage area located inside or close to the CPU. It is
used to temporarily hold frequently accessed data and instructions, allowing the CPU to access
them quickly, which enhances overall system performance.
When cache memory comes into existence?
Data in primary memory can be accessed faster than secondary memory but still, access
times of primary memory are generally in a few microseconds, whereas the CPU is capable of
performing operations in nanoseconds. Due to the time lag between accessing data and
acting on data performance of the system decreases as the CPU is not utilized properly, it
may remain idle for some time. In order to minimize this time gap new segment of memory is
Introduced known as Cache Memory.
Key Features:
Speed: Cache memory is much faster than regular RAM, which helps reduce the time it
takes for the CPU to access data.
Size: It is smaller in size compared to RAM, typically ranging from a few kilobytes (KB)
to several megabytes (MB).
Levels of Cache: Cache memory is often organized into levels:
o L1 Cache: The smallest and fastest, located directly in the CPU. It stores the
most frequently used data and instructions.
o L2 Cache: Larger than L1 but slightly slower, also located within the CPU or on
a separate chip close to the CPU.
o L3 Cache: Even larger and slower than L2, shared among multiple CPU cores.
Functionality:
Data Retrieval: When the CPU needs data, it first checks the cache memory. If the data
is found (a cache hit), it can be processed quickly. If not (a cache miss), the CPU
retrieves it from the slower RAM or storage, which takes more time.
Temporal and Spatial Locality:
Temporal and Spatial Locality: Cache memory takes advantage of two principles:
o Temporal Locality: Recently accessed data is likely to be accessed again soon.
o Spatial Locality: Data located near recently accessed data is likely to be
accessed next.
Importance:
Performance Boost: By storing frequently accessed data and instructions, cache
memory significantly speeds up processing times and enhances system performance.
Efficiency: It helps reduce the workload on the main memory (RAM) and ensures the
CPU can operate at higher speeds.
Secondary memory
Secondary memory is a type of computer storage that keeps data and programs even when
the computer is turned off. Unlike primary memory, which is temporary and loses data when the
power goes out, secondary memory is permanent and can hold information for a long time.
Examples include Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), Solid State Drives (SSDs), USB flash drives, and
CDs.
1. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
A Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is a magnetic storage device that uses spinning platters to
store and retrieve data. A read/write head moves across the surface of these platters to
access data as they rotate at high speed. When you save data, it is magnetically recorded
on the platters, and when you open a file, the head reads that magnetic pattern.
Data Organization on Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
Data on a hard disk is organized in a structured way to make storage, retrieval, and
management efficient. The surface of each platter is divided into circular paths called tracks,
which are further broken into smaller sections known as sectors—each typically holding 512
bytes or 4 KB of data. Several sectors are grouped together to form clusters, which the
operating system uses as the basic unit for storing and managing files, helping to reduce
wasted space. The file system (such as FAT32 or NTFS) keeps track of where every file is
located on the disk and manages how data is stored and retrieved. Finally, files are arranged in
directories or folders, creating a clear hierarchical structure that allows users to organize and
access their data easily.
RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks)
Description: RAID is a storage technology that combines multiple hard disks into a
single unit to improve performance, redundancy, or both.
Working: Data can be stored across multiple disks, which can be set up in different
configurations (like RAID 0 for speed or RAID 1 for redundancy). If one disk fails, the
data can still be accessed from the others.
Benefits: Increases data reliability and access speed, often used in servers and data
centers.
2. Optical Disk Storage (DVD, CD-ROM)
Optical disks are a type of secondary storage device that use laser technology to read and
write data. The most common types are CDs (Compact Discs), DVDs (Digital Versatile
Discs), and Blu-ray Discs, each differing in storage capacity and data density. Data on an
optical disk is stored in the form of tiny pits and lands on its surface. When the disk spins, a
laser beam is directed onto it; the way the light reflects from these pits allows the drive to
interpret the data as digital information (0s and 1s).
Optical disks are durable, portable, and inexpensive, making them suitable for storing music,
movies, software, and backups. A CD typically holds around 700 MB of data, a DVD can store
about 4.7 GB (single layer), and a Blu-ray Disc can store up to 25 GB or more on a single
layer. Although modern systems often rely on USB drives and cloud storage, optical disks are
still used for media distribution and archival storage due to their reliability and long shelf life .
3. Flash Memory Storage Systems
Flash memory is a type of secondary storage that uses electrical charges to store data instead
of moving parts, making it faster, more durable, and reliable than traditional hard drives. It is
non-volatile, meaning data remains stored even when the power is turned off. Information is
stored in floating-gate transistors, which trap electrical charges to represent binary data (0s and
1s). Flash memory comes in various capacities, ranging from a few gigabytes to several
terabytes, and is available in different forms such as memory cards and USB flash drives.
a. Memory Cards and Readers
Memory cards are small, removable storage devices used in cameras, smartphones, tablets,
and gaming consoles to expand storage capacity. They are compact, easy to carry, and can
store large amounts of photos, videos, and other data. Data from memory cards is accessed
through compatible card readers, which allow users to transfer files between devices quickly.
b. USB Flash Drives
USB flash drives are portable storage devices that connect directly to a computer or laptop via a
USB port. They are widely used for storing, transferring, and backing up files. Due to their plug-
and-play functionality, durability, and reusability, USB drives are one of the most convenient and
popular forms of flash storage.
4. Other Types of Storage Systems
a. Network Storage Systems
Category: Secondary Memory
Description: Allows multiple users and devices to access and share data over a
network.
Working: Data is stored on a central server and can be accessed by connected devices,
making it useful for businesses and homes.
b. Cloud Storage Systems
Category: Secondary Memory
Description: Online storage services that allow users to save data on remote servers.
Working: Data is uploaded to the internet and can be accessed from any device with an
internet connection, providing flexibility and scalability.
c. Smart Cards
Category: Secondary Memory
Description: Small plastic cards embedded with a microchip for storing and processing
data.
Working: Used for secure transactions (like credit cards) or identification (like ID cards),
containing encrypted data for security.