Organ system – A group of specialised organs working together to carry out a specific

function.

Palisade mesophyll cells – Plant cells located below the upper epidermis. They receive
a large amount of light so contain a high concentration of chloroplasts for
photosynthesis.

Prokaryotic cell – A type of cell found in bacteria that does not contain a nuclear or
membrane-bound organelles.

Red blood cell – A type of blood cell that is anucleate and biconcave. It contains
haemoglobin which enables the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from the
tissues.

Ribosomes – Organelles that are the site for protein synthesis.

Root hair cells – Specialised cells responsible for the uptake of water and minerals
from the soil.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) – A network of flattened membrane-bound

cavities that holds the ribosomes. It is involved in the production, transport and storage
of proteins.

Sperm cell – A specialised male sex cell involved in reproduction. It consists of a head
containing the acrosome and haploid nucleus, a midpiece containing many
mitochondria and a tall.

Tissue – A group of specialised cells working together to carry out a specific function.

Vacuole – An organelle found in plant cells which stores cell sap and supports the cells.

Xylem vessel – A transport tissue in plants that is specialised to transport water and
dissolved minerals from the roots of the plant to the leaves.

Acrosome – An organelle in the tip of a sperm that contains enzymes which digest the
cells around an egg and the egg membrane.

Cell – The basic building block of all living organisms.

Cell membrane – A partially permeable barrier that surrounds the cell.

Cell wall – An outer layer made of cellulose that strengthens plant cells.

Chloroplast – An organelle in which photosynthesis occurs.

Cilla – Hair-like structures found on ciliated cells that waft substances across the
surface of tissue in one direction.
Ciliated cell – A type of epithelial cell that lines the surface of structures such as the
respiratory tract and uterus. Ciliated cells are covered in tiny hair-like structures known
as cilia.

Cytoplasm – A thick solution of salts, water and proteins within the cell. It contains the
cell’s organelles.

Egg cell – A specialised female sex cell involved in reproduction. It has a haploid
nucleus which holds the genetic material of the cell and a large amount of cytoplasm
containing nutrients for the growth of the early embryo.

Light microscope – A type of microscope that uses a series of lenses to magnify the
visible light reflecting off a specimen. It has a low magnification and resolution.

Magnification – The number of times larger an image appears compound to the original
object, calculated using the formula:

Micrometre (um) – A quantitative unit of length. One micrometre is equal to x10 metre.

Millimetre (mm) – A quantitative of length. One micrometre is equal to x10 metre.

Mitochondria – An organelle that is the site of aerobic respiration. Cells with high rates
of metabolism require a large number of mitochondria.

Nerve cells - Specialised cells responsible for the transmission of verve impulses to
and from the brain and spinal cord.

Nucleus – An organelle found in most plant and animal cells that contains the genetic
material of the cell and controls the activities of the cell.

Organ – A group of specialised tissues working together to carry out a specific function.

Organelle – A specialised structure found inside a cell.

Glucose – A small molecule from which many carbohydrates (e.g. glycogen, starch,
cellulose) are synthesised.

Glycerol – A component of fat molecules.

Glycogen – A type of carbohydrate made from many glucose molecules joined together.

Iodine test – A chemical test that produces a blue/black colour when iodine solution is
added to a sample containing starch.

Lipids – A group of large molecules that are synthesised from fatty acids and glycerol.

Nucleotides – The monomers of DNA consisting of a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate

group and one of four chemical bases (A,T,C,G) attached to the sugar.

Oils – Lipids that are liquid at room temperature.

Protein – A large molecule that is synthesised from amino acids.

Solvent – A substance which other solutes are dissolved in e.g. water.

Starch – A type of carbohydrate made from glucose molecules joined together. It serves
as an energy store in plants.

DNA base sequence – The sequence of bases in a molecule of DNA which can be used
as an accurate method of classification. The more similar the base sequences, the
more closely related the organisms.

Enzymes – Biological catalysts that increase the rate of reaction in living organisms.

Excretion – The process by which toxic substances and excess materials are removed
from the body.

Ferns – A group of vascular land plants that have neither seeds nor flowers and
reproduce via spores from numerous sporangia. They have simple, fleshy underground
stems known as rhizomes.

Fish – A class of vertebrates that are poikilothermic. They have a smooth-streamlined

shape with fins for movement and are covered in overlapping scales. Fish have gills for
breathing and reproduce sexually, with fertilisation normally occurring externally.

Fungi - A biological kingdom consisting of organisms made up of hyphae (long,

branching filamentous structures). They reproduce asexually by producing spores.

Growth – An increase in size or dry mass that is permanent. This may be due to an
increase in the number or size of cells.

Homoiothermic – Describes an organism that is warm-blooded and whose body

temperature is internally regulated.

Insects – A diverse class of arthropods including butterflies, bees, beetles, mosquitoes,

houseflies, greenfly and earwigs. They have segmented bodies (consisting of a head,
thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, one pair of antennae, compound eyes
and normally two pairs of wings.

Kingdom – The largest group of organisms identified by biologists. There are give
kingdoms: Animal, Plant, Fungus, Prokaryote and Protoctist.

Mammals – A class of vertebrates that are homoiothermic. They have four limbs and are
characterised by the presence of hair or fur, and mammary glands. Mammals produce
live young.

Metabolism – All of the chemical reactions that take place inside an organism.

Monocotyledons – Plants that produce seeds that contain one cotyledon (embryonic
leaf), resulting in one primary leaf.
Movement – A change in position due to the action of an organism or part of an
organism.

Myriapods – A class of arthropods consisting of millipedes. They have a segmented

body, ten or more pairs of jointed legs, one pair of antennae and simple eyes.

Nutrition – The process by which living organisms take in materials necessary for
growth, development and energy. Animals require organic compounds, ions and water.
Plants require light, carbon dioxide, ions and water.

Plant (kingdom) – A biological kingdom consisting of multicellular organisms that have

a cellulose cell wall and can photosynthesise.

Poikilothermic – Describe an organism that is cold-blooded and whose body

temperature varies with the temperature of the external environment.

Prokaryote – A biological kingdom consisting of unicellular bacterial which lack a

nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Protein – A large molecule that is synthesised from amino acids.

Protoctista – A biological kingdom consisting of unicellular eukaryotes.

Reproduction – The production of more of the same type of organism.

Reptiles - A class of vertebrates that are poikilothermic. They have four limbs and dry,
scaly skin. Reptiles reproduce sexually, with fertilisation occurring internally.

Respiration – Chemical reactions that take place inside cells and release energy from
the breakdown of nutrient molecules. This energy is used in metabolism.

Ribosomes – Sub-cellular structures that are the site for protein synthesis.

Sensitivity – The ability to sense and respond to environmental change.

Sensitivity – The ability to sense and respond to internal and external stimuli in the
environment.

Species – A group of similar organisms that can interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Vertebrates – A group of animals which have a vertebral column (otherwise known as

the ‘spinal column’ or ‘spine). Vertebrates include fish, amphibia, reptiles, birds and
mammals.

Virus – A non-living microorganism that consists of genetic material surrounded by a

protein coat.
Accommodation – The process by which the elastic lens changes its shapes (with the
aid of ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments) to focus on near or distant objects.
Light is focused onto the retina.

Adrenal glands – Endocrine glands located above the kidneys that produce adrenaline.

Adrenaline – A hormone produced by the adrenal glands that is involved in the ‘fight or
flight’ response. It increases heart rate, breathing rate and widens the pupils. Adrenaline
also increases blood glucose concentration.

Antagonistic muscles - Pairs of muscles that work in an opposing fashion e.g. circular
and radial muscles.

Auxins – A group of plant hormones that stimulate growth in shoot tips. They are
involved in plant tropisms.

Blind spot – The area at the back of the eye where the optic nerve exits the eye. It lacks
receptor cells so cannot detect an image.

Central nervous system (CNS) – The brain and spinal cord.

Ciliary muscle – A ring of smooth muscle that controls the shape of the lens.

Circular muscles – Muscles of the iris that are involved in the pupil reflex action. In
bright light, the circular muscles contract to constrict the pupil. Less light enters the
eye.

Cone cells – Cells found in the retina that are sensitive to high light intensity (bright
light). There are three types of cone cells that can detect light of different colours.

Cornea – The transparent outer covering of the eye which refracts light entering the eye.

Dopamine – A stimulant neurotransmitter which causes a short term ‘high’.

Effector – A organ, tissue, or cell that produces a response to a stimulus.

Endocrine glands – Glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones directly
into the bloodstream.

Endocrine system – A collection of glands that secrete hormones into the

bloodstream. Transmission of signals is slow and the effects are long-lasting.

Fovea – A region of the retina with a high density of cone cells.

Glucagon – A hormone secreted by the pancreas when blood glucose concentration is

too low. It causes the breakdown of glycogen to glucose in the liver.

Gravitropism – A plant’s growth response to gravity.

Hair erector muscles – Tiny muscles found in the skin which contract causing hairs to
stand erect.

Heroin – An illegal drug that stimulates receptors at synapses in the brain, causing
dopamine release.

Homeostasis – The maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body (within

set limits) despite fluctuations in internal conditions.

Hormone – A cell signalling molecule produced by endocrine glands and released into
the blood. It travels to a target organ and binds to receptors on effectors, initiating a
response.

Hypothalamus – A structure in the brain that contains the thermoregulatory centre. It

coordinates information from the receptors and sends instruction to the effectors.

Insulin – A hormone secreted by the pancreas when blood glucose concentration is too
high. It causes liver and muscle cells to increase their uptake of glucose and the
conversion of glucose to glycogen in the liver.

Involuntary action – A action that does not involve conscious thought. Also known as a
reflex action.

Iris – A pigmented ring of circular and radial muscles. It controls the size of the pupil to
alter how much light enters the eye.

Lens – The transparent structure at the front of the eye which refracts light, focusing in
onto the retina. The lens is attached to a ring of ciliary muscle via suspensory ligaments.

Motor neurone – A neurone that carries nerve impulses from the CNS to the effectors.

Negative feedback – A corrective mechanism that allows only small shifts from a set
point, reversing a change in conditions.

Negative plant tropism – The growth of a plant away from a stimulus.

Nerve impulse – An electrical signal that travels along neurones.

Nervous system – A collection of nerves and neurones involved in the transmission of

electrical impulses. Transmission of signals is rapid and the effects are short-lived.

Neurone – A specialised cell that transmits nerve impulses. Also known as a nerve cell.

Neurotransmitter – Chemicals that are used for communication between neurones

and their target cells. Neurotransmitters are stored in synaptic vesicles in the
presynaptic neurone and released into the synaptic cleft.
Oestrogen – A female sex hormone released by the ovaries that is involved in the
development of the female secondary sexual characteristics. It also caused the growth
and repair of the uterus lining during the menstrual cycle.

Optic nerve – A nerve at the back of the eye that transmits nerve impulses to the brain
from the retina.

Ovaries – A pair of endocrine glands in female that secrete oestrogen into the
bloodstream.

Pancreas – An endocrine gland situated behind the stomach that produces insulin.

Peripheral nervous system – Pairs of nerves that originate from the CNS and carry
nerve impulses into and out of the CNS.

Phototropism – A plant’s growth response to light.

Plant tropism – The growth response of a plant to a stimulus.

Positive plant tropism – The growth of a plant towards a stimulus.

Pupil – The aperture of the iris through which light rays enter the eye.

Pupil reflex – A type of reflex action. The size of the pupil changes in response to
exposure of the eye to different light intensities. Pupil size is controlled by the
antagonistic circular and radial muscles in the iris.

Radial muscles – Muscles or the iris that are involved in the pupil reflex action. In dim
light, the radial muscles contract to dilate the pupil. More light enters the eye.

Receptor – A specialised structure that detects a specific type of stimulus.

Reflex – A rapid, automatic response to a sensory stimulus by the body. It serves as a

protective mechanism.

Reflex arc – The pathway of neurones involved in a reflex action.

Relay neurone – A neurone located in the spinal cord that links the sensory neurone to
the motor neurone.

Retina – A specialised layer at the back of the eye composed of light receptors. It
converts light energy into neural signals which are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.

Rod cells – Cells in the retina that are sensitive to low light intensity (dim light).

Sense organ – A group of specialised receptor cells that respond to certain stimuli. The
five sense organs are the eyes, ears, nose, skin and tongue.

Sensory neurone – A neurone that carries verve impulses from the receptors to the
CNS.
Shivering – The involuntary contraction of muscles which generates heat from
respiration.

Stimulus – A change in an organism’s internal or external environment that can be

detected.

Suspensory ligaments – A series of fibres that attach the lens to a ring of ciliary muscle

Sweat glands – Small tubular structures that secrete sweat onto the surface of the skin.

Sweating – The secretion of sweat onto the surface of the skin by sweat glands. The
evaporation of water in sweat removes heat energy from the skin.

Synapse – The junction between two nerve cells or a nerve cell and an effector that
ensures nerve impulses can travel in one direction only.

Synaptic cleft – A small gap between neurones across which a nerve impulse is
transmitted via neurotransmitters.

Synaptic vesicles – Secretory vesicles located in the presynaptic neurone that store
neurotransmitters and release them into the synaptic cleft on arrival of a nerve impulse.

Testes – A pair of endocrine glands in males which secrete testosterone into the
bloodstream.

Testosterone – A male sex hormone released by the testes that is involved in the
development of the male secondary sexual characteristics.

Thermoregulatory centre – An area of the hypothalamus that regulates body

temperature. It contains receptors sensitive to blood temperature.

Type 1 diabetes – A type of diabetes in which the pancreas fails to produce enough
insulin. It is controlled using daily insulin injections, limiting refined sugar intake and
getting regular exercise.

Vasoconstriction – constriction of arterioles near the surface of the skin. Less blood
flows close to the skin surface, decreasing heat loss to the surroundings.

Vasodilation – Dilation of arterioles near the surface of the skin. This allows blood to
flow closer to the skin surface, increasing heat loss to the surroundings.

Voluntary action – An action that involves conscious thought.

2,4-D acid – A selective weedkiller that distorts the growth of broad-leaved weeds and
increases their rate of respiration so much so that all food reserves are used up and the
weed dies.
Assimilation – The movement of simple food molecules into the cells of the body
where they are used.

Cortex – The outer region of this kidney.

Deamination – The removal of the amino group from a molecule. In the liver, amino
acids are deaminated to form ammonia, which is then converted to urea.

Dialysis – A medical procedure that artificially filters the blood of patients with kidney
failure. It relies on a partially permeable membrane between the patient’s blood and
dialysis fluid.

Dialysis fluid – A solution of glucose and salts that is used in kidney dialysis. It has a
similar concentration of glucose and ions to that found in normal plasma. It does not
contain urea.

Excretion – The process of removing metabolic waste from an organism. Excretory

product includes urea, carbon dioxide, excess water and salts.

Glomerulus – A bundle of capillaries located in the renal capsule of a nephron adapted

for the filtration of glucose, urea, water and salts from the blood.

Kidney – One of a pair of organs in the abdomen that has a role in the excretion of urea
and excess water and salts.

Liver – The organ in which digested food molecules are assimilated. It is also involved in
deamination.

Medulla – The inner region of the kidney.

Nephron – The functional unit of the kidney consisting of a single glomerulus with a
renal capsule, renal tubule and capillaries.

Renal arteries – Blood vessels that carry oxygenated blood to the kidneys.

Renal tubule – The coiled region of the nephron which joins to a collecting duct. All of
glucose, most water and some salts are reabsorbed into the blood in the renal tubule.

Renal veins – Blood vessels that drain the kidneys.

Transplant – A medical procedure in which an organ or tissue in an individual is

replaced.

Urea – A toxic chemical produced from the breakdown of excess amino acids in the
liver.

Ureter – A tube that takes urine to the bladder from the kidneys.

Urethra – A tube that released urine from the bladder out of the body.
Urine – The waste product of the kidneys that contains urea, excess water and excess
ions. The volume and concentration of urine depends on water intake, exercise and
temperature.

Alveoli – Tiny, thin-walled air sacs in the lungs which serve as the gaseous exchange
surface.

Breathing rate – The number of breaths taken per minute.

Bronchi – Division of the trachea that lead into the lungs.

Bronchioles – Many small divisions of the bronchi.

Cilia – Hair-like structures found on ciliated cells that waft substances across the
surface of the tissue in one direction.

Ciliated cell – A type of epithelial cell that lines the surface of the respiratory tract.

Ciliated cells are covered in tiny hair-like structures known as cilia.

Diaphragm – A large sheet of muscle that separates the thorax and the abdomen.

Exchange surface – A surface over which materials are exchanged from a region to
another. An effective exchange surface has a large surface area, thin layers, a good
blood supply and ventilation to maintain a steep diffusion gradient.

Expiration – During expiration (exhalation) the diaphragm relaxes and reverts to a dome
shape. The internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling down the ribcage. The volume
of the thorax decreases and thoracic pressure rises above air pressure. Air moves out of
the lungs.

Expired air – The air that is breathed out. It has a higher concentration of carbon dioxide
and water vapour than inspired air and a lower concentration of oxygen.

External intercostal muscles – A set of muscles found between the ribs on the inside
that are involved in forced exhalation.

Gaseous exchange – The exchange of respiratory gases between an organism and its
environment.

Goblet cells – Specialised cells located in the epithelial lining of the trachea, bronchi,
and some bronchioles that secrete mucus.

Inspiration – During inspiration (inhalation) the diaphragm contracts and flattens and
the external intercostal muscles contract, raising the ribcage. The volume of the thorax
increases the thoracic pressure and falls below air pressure. Air moves into the lungs.
Inspired air – The air that is breathed in. It has a higher concentration of oxygen than
expired air and a lower concentration of carbon dioxide and water vapour.

Intercostal muscles – Groups of muscles situated between the ribs. They control rib
movement.

Internal intercostal muscles – A set of muscles found between the ribs on the outside
that are involved in forces and quiet inhalation.

Larynx – A hollow, tubular structure located at the top of the trachea involved in
breathing and the production of sound.

Limewater – A chemical used to test for the presence of carbon dioxide. It turns milky
when carbon dioxide is present.

Lungs – A pair of air-filled organs located on either side of the chest. They contain the
alveoli, the gaseous exchange surface.

Mucus – A slimy substance secreted by goblet cells. It forms a thin, sticky film over the
internal lining of the respiratory tract, trapping pathogens and particles and preventing
their entry into the alveoli.

Ribs – A set of bones that surround and protects the chest cavity.

Trachea – The primary airway which carries air from the nasal cavity down into chest. It
is a tube supported by incomplete rings of cartilage which provide structural strength.

Ventilation – The movement of fresh air into the lungs and stale air out of the lungs via
inspiration and expiration.

Nitrate ions – A type of mineral element required by plants for the production of amino
acids. If a plant is deficient in nitrate ions it exhibits stunted growth. Its lower leaves
become yellow and its upper leaves turn pale green.

Palisade mesophyll – The main photosynthetic tissue in plants located below the
upper epidermis. It receives the most amount of light and contains the greatest
concentration of chloroplasts.

Phloem – A transport tissue found in plants that are specialized to transport sugars
from the leaves to the rest of the plant in both directions.

Photosynthesis – A reaction that takes place inside photosynthetic organisms (e.g.

plants, algae) and manufactures carbohydrates from raw materials using light energy.
Overall, in the presence of light and chlorophyll:

Carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen

6CO + 6H[2]O → C[6]H[12]O[6] + 6O

Spongy mesophyll – A type of loosely packed mesophyll tissue with air pockets, which
is specialised for gas exchange. It contains some chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

Starch – A type of carbohydrate made from many glucose molecules joined together. It
serves as an energy store in plants.

Stomata – Small holes found on the surface of a plant (typically leaves) that can be
opened or closed by guard cells to control water loss and gas exchange.

Sucrose – A soluble sugar produced from the breakdown of starch in plants. It can be
stored, used in respiration or used to synthesise other substances.

Upper epidermis - A layer of transparent cells that allows light to strike the palisade
mesophyll tissue.

Vascular bundle – Part of the transport system in vascular plants that consists of xylem
and phloem tissue.

Xylem – A transport tissue in plants that is specialised to transport water and dissolved
minerals from the roots of the plant to the leaves.

Active transport – The movement of substances from a low concentration to a higher

concentration (against the concentration gradient) across a membrane, with the use of
energy from respiration.

Aerobic respiration – Respiration in the presence of oxygen that releases energy from
the breakdown of glucose:

Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

C6 H 12O6 + 6CO2 + 6H2O

Anaerobic respiration – Respiration which takes place without oxygen and forms
energy from the breakdown of glucose. In muscles, lactic acid is produced. In yeast,
alcohol and carbon dioxide are produced. Less energy is released than in aerobic
respiration.

Enzyme – A biological catalyst that increases the rate of reactions in living organisms.

Fermentation – The chemical breakdown of a substance (normally under anaerobic

conditions) by microorganisms or enzymes. For example, glucose is converted to
alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast.

glucose →alcohol + carbon dioxide

C 6H12 O6 6 →2C2 H 5OH +2CO2

Lactic acid – The product of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells. Lactic acid build-up
inhibits anaerobic respiration and results in cramp and fatigue. After exercise, lactic
acid is transported to the liver where it is oxidised or converted to glucose.

Oxygen debt – The amount of extra oxygen required by the body after exercise to
remove the accumulated lactic acid and replace the body’s reserves of oxygen.

Respiration – A chemical reaction that takes place in cells and produces energy from
nutrient molecules. It involves the action of enzymes. The energy may be used in protein
synthesis, growth, cell division, active transport, muscle contraction, homeostasis or
the conduction of impulses by nerve cells.

Respirometer – A device used to measure respiration rate in living organisms.

Soda-lime – A chemical that absorbs carbon dioxide.

Angioplasty - The use of a catheter to insert a small, deflated balloon into a blocked or
narrowed artery. Once in place, the balloon is inflated, widening the artery in some
cases a stent may be inserted into the lumen.

Aorta – The artery that takes oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body.

Artery - type of blood vessel that carries blood away from the tissues, under high
pressure. The walls of the arteries contain thick layers of smooth muscle and elastic
fibres.

Aspirin – A drug used to treat coronary heart disease by preventing the formation of
blood clots in the arteries.

Atria – The two upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the veins and pump
blood into the ventricles. The muscular walls of the atria are thinner than that of the
ventricles.

Atrioventricular (AV) valves – The valves found between the atria and ventricles. They
prevent the backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria. There are two types of
AV valves: bicuspid and tricuspid.

Bicuspid valves – The atrioventricular valves found between the left atrium and left
ventricle.

Blood – A tissue containing red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets and plasma.

Blood clotting – A defence mechanism that prevents excessive blood loss and the entry
of harmful microorganisms. It involves platelets and the conversion of fibrinogen to
fibrin to form a mesh over the wound.
By-pass surgery – A surgical procedure involving the use of a blood vessel from another
region of the body (e.g. leg, arm) to divert blood around a blockage in the coronary
artery.

Capillaries – Thin, narrow blood vessels that connect the arteries and veins. They are
the site of exchange of substance between the blood and the tissues.

Circulatory system – The transport system in mammals consisting of a pump, blood

vessels and valves.

Coronary arteries – The arteries that supply the heart muscle with food and oxygen.

Coronary heart disease – A disease caused by the build-up of fatty deposits inside the
coronary arteries, narrowing them and reducing blood flow to the heart tissue. Risk
factors include a diet high in saturated fats, stress, lack of exercise, smoking, age,
genetic predisposition and gender.