1

Introduction
to Microelectronics
Over the past five decades, microelectronics has revolutionized our lives. While beyond
the realm of possibility a few decades ago, cellphones, digital cameras, laptop computers,
and many other electronic products have now become an integral part of our daily affairs.
Learning microelectronics can be fun. As we learn how each device operates, how
devices comprise circuits that perform interesting and useful functions, and how circuits
form sophisticated systems, we begin to see the beauty of microelectronics and appreciate
the reasons for its explosive growth.
This chapter gives an overview of microelectronics so as to provide a context for the
material presented in this book. We introduce examples of microelectronic systems and
identify important circuit “functions” that they employ. We also provide a review of basic
circuit theory to refresh the reader’s memory.

1.1 ELECTRONICS VERSUS MICROELECTRONICS

The general area of electronics began about a century ago and proved instrumental in
the radio and radar communications used during the two world wars. Early systems in-
corporated “vacuum tubes,” amplifying devices that operated with the flow of electrons
between plates in a vacuum chamber. However, the finite lifetime and the large size of
vacuum tubes motivated researchers to seek an electronic device with better properties.
The first transistor was invented in the 1940s and rapidly displaced vacuum tubes. It
exhibited a very long (in principle, infinite) lifetime and occupied a much smaller volume
(e.g., less than 1 cm3 in packaged form) than vacuum tubes did.
But it was not until 1960s that the field of microelectronics, i.e., the science of integrat-
ing many transistors on one chip, began. Early “integrated circuits” (ICs) contained only
a handful of devices, but advances in the technology soon made it possible to dramatically
increase the complexity of “microchips.”

1
2 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Example Today’s microprocessors contain about 100 million transistors in a chip area of approx-
1.1 imately 3 cm × 3 cm. (The chip is a few hundred microns thick.) Suppose integrated
circuits were not invented and we attempted to build a processor using 100 million
“discrete” transistors. If each device occupies a volume of 3 mm × 3 mm × 3 mm, de-
termine the minimum volume for the processor. What other issues would arise in such
an implementation?

Solution The minimum volume is given by 27 mm3 × 108 , i.e., a cube 1.4 m on each side! Of
course, the wires connecting the transistors would increase the volume substantially.
In addition to occupying a large volume, this discrete processor would be extremely
slow; the signals would need to travel on wires as long as 1.4 m! Furthermore, if each
discrete transistor costs 1 cent and weighs 1 g, each processor unit would be priced at
one million dollars and weigh 100 tons!

Exercise How much power would such a system consume if each transistor dissipates 10 μW?

This book deals mostly with microelectronics while providing sufficient foundation for
general (perhaps discrete) electronic systems as well.

1.2 EXAMPLES OF ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS

At this point, we introduce two examples of microelectronic systems and identify some of
the important building blocks that we should study in basic electronics.

1.2.1 Cellular Telephone

Cellular telephones were developed in the 1980s and rapidly became popular in the 1990s.
Today’s cellphones contain a great deal of sophisticated analog and digital electronics that
lie well beyond the scope of this book. But our objective here is to see how the concepts
described in this book prove relevant to the operation of a cellphone.
Suppose you are speaking with a friend on your cellphone. Your voice is converted to
an electric signal by a microphone and, after some processing, transmitted by the antenna.
The signal produced by your antenna is picked up by your friend’s receiver and, after some
processing, applied to the speaker [Fig. 1.1(a)]. What goes on in these black boxes? Why
are they needed?

Transmitter (TX) Receiver (RX)

Microphone Speaker

? ?

(a) (b)

Figure 1.1 (a) Simplified view of a cellphone, (b) further simplification of transmit and receive
paths.
 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 3

Let us attempt to omit the black boxes and construct the simple system shown in
Fig. 1.1(b). How well does this system work? We make two observations. First, our voice
contains frequencies from 20 Hz to 20 kHz (called the “voice band”). Second, for an an-
tenna to operate efficiently, i.e., to convert most of the electrical signal to electromagnetic
radiation, its dimension must be a significant fraction (e.g., 25%) of the wavelength. Un-
fortunately, a frequency range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz translates to a wavelength1 of 1.5 × 107
m to 1.5 × 104 m, requiring gigantic antennas for each cellphone. Conversely, to obtain
a reasonable antenna length, e.g., 5 cm, the wavelength must be around 20 cm and the
frequency around 1.5 GHz.
How do we “convert” the voice band to a gigahertz center frequency? One possible
approach is to multiply the voice signal, x(t), by a sinusoid, A cos(2π fc t) [Fig. 1.2(a)]. Since
multiplication in the time domain corresponds to convolution in the frequency domain,
and since the spectrum of the sinusoid consists of two impulses at ±f c , the voice spectrum
is simply shifted (translated) to ±f c [Fig. 1.2(b)]. Thus, if f c = 1 GHz, the output occupies
a bandwidth of 40 kHz centered at 1 GHz. This operation is an example of “amplitude
modulation.”2

Output Waveform
x (t ) A cos(2 π f C t )
Voice
Signal

t t t

(a)

Spectrum of Cosine Output Spectrum

X (f )
Voice
Spectrum

–fC
+20 kHz
–20 kHz

0 f –fC 0 +fC f 0 +fC f

(b)

Figure 1.2 (a) Multiplication of a voice signal by a sinusoid, (b) equivalent operation in the
frequency domain.

We therefore postulate that the black box in the transmitter of Fig. 1.1(a) contains
a multiplier,3 as depicted in Fig. 1.3(a). But two other issues arise. First, the cellphone
must deliver a relatively large voltage swing (e.g., 20 Vpp ) to the antenna so that the
radiated power can reach across distances of several kilometers, thereby requiring a “power
amplifier” between the multiplier and the antenna. Second, the sinusoid, A cos 2π fc t, must
be produced by an “oscillator.” We thus arrive at the transmitter architecture shown in
Fig. 1.3(b).

1
Recall that the wavelength is equal to the (light) velocity divided by the frequency.
2
Cellphones in fact use other types of modulation to translate the voice band to higher frequencies.
3
Also called a “mixer” in high-frequency electronics.
4 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Power
Amplifier

A cos(2 π f C t ) Oscillator

(a) (b)

Figure 1.3 (a) Simple transmitter, (b) more complete transmitter.

Let us now turn our attention to the receive path of the cellphone, beginning with the
simple realization illustrated in Fig. 1.1(b). Unfortunately, this topology fails to operate
with the principle of modulation: if the signal received by the antenna resides around a
gigahertz center frequency, the audio speaker cannot produce meaningful information. In
other words, a means of translating the spectrum back to zero center frequency is necessary.
For example, as depicted in Fig. 1.4(a), multiplication by a sinusoid, A cos(2π fc t), translates
the spectrum to left and right by fc , restoring the original voice band. The newly-generated
components at ±2fc can be removed by a low-pass filter. We thus arrive at the receiver
topology shown in Fig. 1.4(b).

Output Spectrum

Received Spectrum Spectrum of Cosine

–fC 0 +fC f –fC 0 +fC f –2 f C 0 +2 f C f

(a)

Low-Noise
Amplifier Amplifier
Low-Pass Low-Pass
Filter Filter

Oscillator Oscillator

(b) (c)

Figure 1.4 (a) Translation of modulated signal to zero center frequency, (b) simple receiver,
(b) more complete receiver.

Our receiver design is still incomplete. The signal received by the antenna can be as
low as a few tens of microvolts whereas the speaker may require swings of several tens
 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 5

or hundreds of millivolts. That is, the receiver must provide a great deal of amplification
(“gain”) between the antenna and the speaker. Furthermore, since multipliers typically
suffer from a high “noise” and hence corrupt the received signal, a “low-noise amplifier”
must precede the multiplier. The overall architecture is depicted in Fig. 1.4(c).
Today’s cellphones are much more sophisticated than the topologies developed above.
For example, the voice signal in the transmitter and the receiver is applied to a digital signal
processor (DSP) to improve the quality and efficiency of the communication. Nonetheless,
our study reveals some of the fundamental building blocks of cellphones, e.g., amplifiers,
oscillators, and filters, with the last two also utilizing amplification. We therefore devote a
great deal of effort to the analysis and design of amplifiers.
Having seen the necessity of amplifiers, oscillators, and multipliers in both trans-
mit and receive paths of a cellphone, the reader may wonder if “this is old stuff” and
rather trivial compared to the state of the art. Interestingly, these building blocks still re-
main among the most challenging circuits in communication systems. This is because the
design entails critical trade-offs between speed (gigahertz center frequencies), noise, power
dissipation (i.e., battery lifetime), weight, cost (i.e., price of a cellphone), and many
other parameters. In the competitive world of cellphone manufacturing, a given design is
never “good enough” and the engineers are forced to further push the above trade-offs in
each new generation of the product.

1.2.2 Digital Camera

Another consumer product that, by virtue of “going electronic,” has dramatically changed
our habits and routines is the digital camera. With traditional cameras, we received no
immediate feedback on the quality of the picture that was taken, we were very careful in
selecting and shooting scenes to avoid wasting frames, we needed to carry bulky rolls of
film, and we would obtain the final result only in printed form. With digital cameras, on
the other hand, we have resolved these issues and enjoy many other features that only
electronic processing can provide, e.g., transmission of pictures through cellphones or
ability to retouch or alter pictures by computers. In this section, we study the operation of
the digital camera.
The “front end” of the camera must convert light to electricity, a task performed by an
array (matrix) of “pixels.”4 Each pixel consists of an electronic device (a “photodiode”) that
produces a current proportional to the intensity of the light that it receives. As illustrated
in Fig. 1.5(a), this current flows through a capacitance, CL , for a certain period of time,
thereby developing a proportional voltage across it. Each pixel thus provides a voltage
proportional to the “local” light density.
Now consider a camera with, say, 6.25 million pixels arranged in a 2500 × 2500 array
[Fig. 1.5(b)]. How is the output voltage of each pixel sensed and processed? If each pixel
contains its own electronic circuitry, the overall array occupies a very large area, raising the
cost and the power dissipation considerably. We must therefore “time-share” the signal
processing circuits among pixels. To this end, we follow the circuit of Fig. 1.5(a) with a
simple, compact amplifier and a switch (within the pixel) [Fig. 1.5(c)]. Now, we connect
a wire to the outputs of all 2500 pixels in a “column,” turn on only one switch at a time,
and apply the corresponding voltage to the “signal processing” block outside the column.

4
The term “pixel” is an abbreviation of “picture cell.”
6 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Amplifier
25
00
C
ol
um
ns

2500 Rows
I Diode
Light
CL V out

Signal
Photodiode Processing

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.5 (a) Operation of a photodiode, (b) array of pixels in a digital camera, (c) one column of
the array.

The overall array consists of 2500 of such columns, with each column employing a dedicated
signal processing block.

Example A digital camera is focused on a chess board. Sketch the voltage produced by one column
1.2 as a function of time.

Solution The pixels in each column receive light only from the white squares [Fig. 1.6(a)]. Thus,
the column voltage alternates between a maximum for such pixels and zero for those
receiving no light. The resulting waveform is shown in Fig. 1.6(b).

V column
V column
t

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.6 (a) Chess board captured by a digital camera, (b) voltage waveform of one column.

Exercise Plot the voltage if the first and second squares in each row have the same color.
 1.2 Examples of Electronic Systems 7

What does each signal processing block do? Since the voltage produced by each pixel
is an analog signal and can assume all values within a range, we must first “digitize” it
by means of an “analog-to-digital converter” (ADC). A 6.25 megapixel array must thus
incorporate 2500 ADCs. Since ADCs are relatively complex circuits, we may time-share
one ADC between every two columns (Fig. 1.7), but requiring that the ADC operate twice
as fast (why?). In the extreme case, we may employ a single, very fast ADC for all 2500
columns. In practice, the optimum choice lies between these two extremes.

ADC

Figure 1.7 Sharing one ADC between two columns of a pixel array.

Once in the digital domain, the “video” signal collected by the camera can be ma-
nipulated extensively. For example, to “zoom in,” the digital signal processor (DSP) sim-
ply considers only a section of the array, discarding the information from the remaining
pixels. Also, to reduce the required memory size, the processor “compresses” the video
signal.
The digital camera exemplifies the extensive use of both analog and digital microelec-
tronics. The analog functions include amplification, switching operations, and analog-to-
digital conversion, and the digital functions consist of subsequent signal processing and
storage.

1.2.3 Analog Versus Digital

Amplifiers and ADCs are examples of analog functions, circuits that must process each
point on a waveform (e.g., a voice signal) with great care to avoid effects such as noise
and “distortion.” By contrast, digital circuits deal with binary levels (ONEs and ZEROs)
and, evidently, contain no analog functions. The reader may then say, “I have no intention
of working for a cellphone or camera manufacturer and, therefore, need not learn about
analog circuits.” In fact, with digital communications, digital signal processors, and every
other function becoming digital, is there any future for analog design?
Well, some of the assumptions in the above statements are incorrect. First, not every
function can be realized digitally. The architectures of Figs. 1.3 and 1.4 must employ low-
noise and low-power amplifiers, oscillators, and multipliers regardless of whether the actual
communication is in analog or digital form. For example, a 20-μV signal (analog or digital)
8 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

received by the antenna cannot be directly applied to a digital gate. Similarly, the video
signal collectively captured by the pixels in a digital camera must be processed with low
noise and distortion before it appears in the digital domain.
Second, digital circuits require analog expertise as the speed increases. Figure 1.8
exemplifies this point by illustrating two binary data waveforms, one at 100 Mb/s and
another at 1 Gb/s. The finite risetime and falltime of the latter raises many issues in the
operation of gates, flipflops, and other digital circuits, necessitating great attention to each
point on the waveform.

10 ns

x 1 (t )

t
1 ns

x 2 (t )

Figure 1.8 Data waveforms at 100 Mb/s and 1 Gb/s.

1.3 BASIC CONCEPTS*

Analysis of microelectronic circuits draws upon many concepts that are taught in basic
courses on signals and systems and circuit theory. This section provides a brief review of
these concepts so as to refresh the reader’s memory and establish the terminology used
throughout this book. The reader may first glance through this section to determine which
topics need a review or simply return to this material as it becomes necessary later.

1.3.1 Analog and Digital Signals

An electric signal is a waveform that carries information. Signals that occur in na-
ture can assume all values in a given range. Called “analog,” such signals include
voice, video, seismic, and music waveforms. Shown in Fig. 1.9(a), an analog voltage

V (t ( V ( t ( + Noise

t t

(a) (b)

Figure 1.9 (a) Analog signal, (b) effect of noise on analog signal.

∗
This section serves as a review and can be skipped in classroom teaching.
 1.3 Basic Concepts 9

waveform swings through a “continuum” of values and provides information at each instant
of time.
While occurring all around us, analog signals are difficult to “process” due to sensitivi-
ties to such circuit imperfections as “noise” and “distortion.”5 As an example, Figure 1.9(b)
illustrates the effect of noise. Furthermore, analog signals are difficult to “store” because
they require “analog memories” (e.g., capacitors).
By contrast, a digital signal assumes only a finite number of values at only certain
points in time. Depicted in Fig. 1.10(a) is a “binary” waveform, which remains at only one
of two levels for each period, T. So long as the two voltages corresponding to ONEs and
ZEROs differ sufficiently, logical circuits sensing such a signal process it correctly—even
if noise or distortion create some corruption [Fig. 1.10(b)]. We therefore consider digital
signals more “robust” than their analog counterparts. The storage of binary signals (in a
digital memory) is also much simpler.

V (t ( ONE V ( t ( + Noise

ZERO
t t
T T
(a) (b)

Figure 1.10 (a) Digital signal, (b) effect of noise on digital signal.

The foregoing observations favor processing of signals in the digital domain, suggesting
that inherently analog information must be converted to digital form as early as possible.
Indeed, complex microelectronic systems such as digital cameras, camcorders, and compact
disk (CD) recorders perform some analog processing, “analog-to-digital conversion,” and
digital processing (Fig. 1.11), with the first two functions playing a critical role in the quality
of the signal.

Digital
Analog Analog Analog–to–Digital
Processing
Signal Processing Conversion
and Storage

Figure 1.11 Signal processing in a typical system.

It is worth noting that many digital binary signals must be viewed and processed
as analog waveforms. Consider, for example, the information stored on a hard disk in
a computer. Upon retrieval, the “digital” data appears as a distorted waveform with
only a few millivolts of amplitude (Fig. 1.12). Such a small separation between ONEs
and ZEROs proves inadequate if this signal is to drive a logical gate, demanding a great
deal of amplification and other analog processing before the data reaches a robust digital
form.

5
Distortion arises if the output is not a linear function of input.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

~3 mV
Hard
Disk t

Figure 1.12 Signal picked up from a hard disk in a computer.

1.3.2 Analog Circuits

Today’s microelectronic systems incorporate many analog functions. As exemplified by the
cellphone and the digital camera studied above, analog circuits often limit the performance
of the overall system.
The most commonly-used analog function is amplification. The signal received by a
cellphone or picked up by a microphone proves too small to be processed further. An
amplifier is therefore necessary to raise the signal swing to acceptable levels.
The performance of an amplifier is characterized by a number of parameters, e.g., gain,
speed, and power dissipation. We study these aspects of amplification in great detail later
in this book, but it is instructive to briefly review some of these concepts here.
A voltage amplifier produces an output swing greater than the input swing. The voltage
gain, Av , is defined as
vout
Av = . (1.1)
vin
In some cases, we prefer to express the gain in decibels (dB):
vout
Av |dB = 20 log . (1.2)
vin
For example, a voltage gain of 10 translates to 20 dB. The gain of typical amplifiers falls in
the range of 101 to 105 .

Example A cellphone receives a signal level of 20 μV, but it must deliver a swing of 50 mV to the
1.3 speaker that reproduces the voice. Calculate the required voltage gain in decibels.

Solution We have
50 mV
Av = 20 log (1.3)
20 μV
≈ 68 dB. (1.4)

Exercise What is the output swing if the gain is 50 dB?

In order to operate properly and provide gain, an amplifier must draw power from
a voltage source, e.g., a battery or a charger. Called the “power supply,” this source is
typically denoted by VCC or VDD [Fig. 1.13(a)]. In complex circuits, we may simplify the
notation to that shown in Fig. 1.13(b), where the “ground” terminal signifies a reference
point with zero potential. If the amplifier is simply denoted by a triangle, we may even omit
the supply terminals [Fig. 1.13(c)], with the understanding that they are present. Typical
amplifiers operate with supply voltages in the range of 1 V to 10 V.
 1.3 Basic Concepts 11

Amplifier
VCC
V CC
V in Vout V in Vout V in Vout

Ground

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.13 (a) General amplifier symbol along with its power supply, (b) simplified diagram of
(a), (b) amplifier with supply rails omitted.

What limits the speed of amplifiers? We expect that various capacitances in the circuit
begin to manifest themselves at high frequencies, thereby lowering the gain. In other
words, as depicted in Fig. 1.14, the gain rolls off at sufficiently high frequencies, limiting
the (usable) “bandwidth” of the circuit. Amplifiers (and other analog circuits) suffer from
trade-offs between gain, speed and power dissipation. Today’s microelectronic amplifiers
achieve bandwidths as large as tens of gigahertz.
Amplifier Gain

High-Frequency
Roll-off

Frequency

Figure 1.14 Roll-off of an amplifier’s gain at high frequencies.

What other analog functions are frequently used? A critical operation is “filtering.”
For example, an electrocardiograph measuring a patient’s heart activities also picks up the
60-Hz (or 50-Hz) electrical line voltage because the patient’s body acts as an antenna. Thus,
a filter must suppress this “interferer” to allow meaningful measurement of the heart.

1.3.3 Digital Circuits

More than 80% of the microelectronics industry deals with digital circuits. Examples in-
clude microprocessors, static and dynamic memories, and digital signal processors. Recall
from basic logic design that gates form “combinational” circuits, and latches and flipflops
constitute “sequential” machines. The complexity, speed, and power dissipation of these
building blocks play a central role in the overall system performance.
In digital microelectronics, we study the design of the internal circuits of gates, flipflops,
and other components. For example, we construct a circuit using devices such as transistors
to realize the NOT and NOR functions shown in Fig. 1.15. Based on these implementations,
we then determine various properties of each circuit. For example, what limits the speed

NOT Gate NOR Gate

A
A Y =A Y =A +B
B

Figure 1.15 NOT and NOR gates.

12 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

of a gate? How much power does a gate consume while running at a certain speed? How
robustly does a gate operate in the presence of nonidealities such as noise (Fig. 1.16)?

Figure 1.16 Response of a gate to a noisy input.

Example Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.17, where switch S1 is controlled by the digital input.
1.4 That is, if A is high, S1 is on and vice versa. Prove that the circuit provides the NOT
function.

RL

V DD
A S1
Vout

Figure 1.17

Solution If A is high, S1 is on, forcing Vout to zero. On the other hand, if A is low, S1 remains off,
drawing no current from RL . As a result, the voltage drop across RL is zero and hence
Vout = VDD ; i.e., the output is high. We thus observe that, for both logical states at the
input, the output assumes the opposite state.

Exercise Determine the logical function if S1 and RL are swapped and Vout is sensed across RL .

The above example indicates that switches can perform logical operations. In fact,
early digital circuits did employ mechanical switches (relays), but suffered from a very
limited speed (a few kilohertz). It was only after “transistors” were invented and their
ability to act as switches was recognized that digital circuits consisting of millions of gates
and operating at high speeds (several gigahertz) became possible.

1.3.4 Basic Circuit Theorems

Of the numerous analysis techniques taught in circuit theory courses, some prove partic-
ularly important to our study of microelectronics. This section provides a review of such
concepts.

Kirchoff’s Laws The Kirchoff Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of all currents
flowing into a node is zero (Fig. 1.18):

Ij = 0. (1.5)
j
 1.3 Basic Concepts 13

KCL in fact results from conservation of charge: a nonzero sum would mean that
either some of the charge flowing into node X vanishes or this node produces charge.

I1 In

I2 Ij

Figure 1.18 Illustration of KCL.

The Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltage drops around any
closed loop in a circuit is zero [Fig. 1.19(a)]:

V2 V2 2
3
V3
V1 V1 V3 3
1 1
V4
V4
4
4

(a) (b)

Figure 1.19 (a) Illustration of KVL, (b) slightly different view of the circuit.

Vj = 0, (1.6)
j
where Vj denotes the voltage drop across element number j. KVL arises from the con-
servation of the “electromotive force.” In the example illustrated in Fig. 1.19(a), we may
sum the voltages in the loop to zero: V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 = 0. Alternatively, adopting the
modified view shown in Fig. 1.19(b), we can say V 1 is equal to the sum of the voltages
across elements 2, 3, and 4: V1 = V2 + V3 + V4 . Note that the polarities assigned to V 2 ,
V 3 , and V4 in Fig. 1.19(b) are different from those in Fig. 1.19(a).
In solving circuits, we may not know a priori the correct polarities of the currents and
voltages. Nonetheless, we can simply assign arbitrary polarities, write KCLs and KVLs,
and solve the equations to obtain the actual polarities and values.

Example The topology depicted in Fig. 1.20 represents the equivalent circuit of an amplifier. The
1.5 dependent current source i1 is equal to a constant, gm ,6 multiplied by the voltage drop
across rπ . Determine the voltage gain of the amplifier, vout /vin .

6
What is the dimension of gm ?
14 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

v out
v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out
m RL

Figure 1.20

Solution We must compute Vout in terms of vin , i.e., we must eliminate vπ from the equations.
Writing a KVL in the “input loop,” we have
vin = vπ , (1.7)
and hence gmvπ = gmvin . A KCL at the output node yields
vout
gmvπ + = 0. (1.8)
RL
It follows that
vout
= −gmRL . (1.9)
vin
Note that the circuit amplifies the input if gmRL > 1. Unimportant in most cases, the
negative sign simply means the circuit “inverts” the signal.

Exercise Repeat the above example if rπ → ∞.

Example Figure 1.21 shows another amplifier topology. Compute the gain.
1.6

rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out
m

v in

Figure 1.21

Solution Noting that rπ in fact appears in parallel with vin , we write a KVL across these two
components:

vin = −vπ . (1.10)

The KCL at the output node is similar to (1.8). Thus,
vout
= gmRL . (1.11)
vin
Interestingly, this type of amplifier does not invert the signal.

Exercise Repeat the above example if rπ → ∞.

 1.3 Basic Concepts 15

Example A third amplifier topology is shown in Fig. 1.22. Determine the voltage gain.
1.7

v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ
m

RE v out

Figure 1.22

Solution We first write a KVL around the loop consisting of vin , rπ , and RE :
vin = vπ + vout . (1.12)
That is, vπ = vin − vout . Next, noting that the currents vπ /rπ and gmvπ flow into the output
node, and the current vout /RE flows out of it, we write a KCL:
vπ vout
+ gmvπ = . (1.13)
rπ RE
Substituting vin − vout for vπ gives
   
1 1 1
vin + gm = vout + + gm , (1.14)
rπ RE r π
and hence 1
+ gm
vout rπ
= (1.15)
vin 1 1
+ + gm
RE r π
(1 + gmrπ )RE
= . (1.16)
rπ + (1 + gmrπ )RE
Note that the voltage gain always remains below unity. Would such an amplifier prove
useful at all? In fact, this topology exhibits some important properties that make it a
versatile building block.

Exercise Repeat the above example if rπ → ∞.

The foregoing three examples relate to three amplifier topologies that are studied
extensively in Chapter 5.

Thevenin and Norton Equivalents While Kirchoff’s laws can always be utilized to solve
any circuit, the Thevenin and Norton theorems can both simplify the algebra and, more
importantly, provide additional insight into the operation of a circuit.
Thevenin’s theorem states that a (linear) one-port network can be replaced with an
equivalent circuit consisting of one voltage source in series with one impedance. Illustrated
in Fig. 1.23(a), the term “port” refers to any two nodes whose voltage difference is of
interest. The equivalent voltage, vThev , is obtained by leaving the port open and computing
the voltage created by the actual circuit at this port. The equivalent impedance, ZThev , is
16 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

X
iX

v
Vj
Port j

v v
he he
ZT ZT

hev
vT

(a) (b)

Figure 1.23 (a) Thevenin equivalent circuit, (b) computation of equivalent impedance.

determined by setting all independent voltage and current sources in the circuit to zero
and calculating the impedance between the two nodes. We also call ZThev the impedance
“seen” when “looking” into the output port [Fig. 1.23(b)]. The impedance is computed
by applying a voltage source across the port and obtaining the resulting current. A few
examples illustrate these principles.

Example Suppose the input voltage source and the amplifier shown in Fig. 1.20 are placed in a box
1.8 and only the output port is of interest [Fig. 1.24(a)]. Determine the Thevenin equivalent
of the circuit.

Solution We must compute the open-circuit output voltage and the impedance seen when looking
into the output port. The Thevenin voltage is obtained from Fig. 1.24(a) and Eq. (1.9):
vThev = vout (1.17)
= −gmRL vin . (1.18)
To calculate ZThev , we set vin to zero, apply a voltage source, vX , across the output port,
and determine the current drawn from the voltage source, iX . As shown in Fig. 1.24(b),
setting vin to zero means replacing it with a short circuit. Also, note that the current
source gmvπ remains in the circuit because it depends on the voltage across rπ , whose
value is not known a priori.
iX RL

v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out v in = 0 r π vπ i 1 g vπ RL vX
m m g R Lv in
m

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.24

How do we solve the circuit of Fig. 1.24(b)? We must again eliminate vπ . Fortunately,
since both terminals of rπ are tied to ground, vπ = 0 and gmvπ = 0. The circuit thus
reduces to RL and
vX
iX = . (1.19)
RL
 1.3 Basic Concepts 17

That is,
RThev = RL . (1.20)
Figure 1.24(c) depicts the Thevenin equivalent of the input voltage source and the am-
plifier. In this case, we call RThev (= RL ) the “output impedance” of the circuit.

Exercise Repeat the above example if rπ → ∞.

With the Thevenin equivalent of a circuit available, we can readily analyze its behavior
in the presence of a subsequent stage or “load.”

Example The amplifier of Fig. 1.20 must drive a speaker having an impedance of Rsp . Determine
1.9 the voltage delivered to the speaker.

Solution Shown in Fig. 1.25(a) is the overall circuit arrangement that we must solve. Replac-
ing the section in the dashed box with its Thevenin equivalent from Fig. 1.24(c),
we greatly simplify the circuit [Fig. 1.25(b)], and write
Rsp
vout = −gmRL vin (1.21)
Rsp + RL
= −gmvin (RL ||Rsp ). (1.22)

RL

v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L v out R sp v out R sp
m – g m R Lv in

(a) (b)
Figure 1.25

Exercise Repeat the above example if rπ → ∞.

Example Determine the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.22 if the output port is
1.10 of interest.

Solution The open-circuit output voltage is simply obtained from (1.16):

(1 + gmrπ )RL
vThev = vin . (1.23)
rπ + (1 + gmrπ )RL
To calculate the Thevenin impedance, we set vin to zero and apply a voltage source
across the output port as depicted in Fig. 1.26. To eliminate vπ , we recognize that the
two terminals of rπ are tied to those of vX and hence
vπ = −vX . (1.24)
18 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

rπ vπ i 1 g vπ
m

iX

vX vX
RL
RL

Figure 1.26

We now write a KCL at the output node. The currents vπ /rπ , gmvπ , and iX flow into this
node and the current vX /RL flows out of it. Consequently,
vπ vX
+ gmvπ + i X = , (1.25)
rπ RL
or
 
1 vX
+ gm (−vX ) + i X = . (1.26)
rπ RL
That is,
vX
RThev = (1.27)
iX

r π RL
= . (1.28)
rπ + (1 + gmrπ )RL

Exercise What happens if RL = ∞?

Norton’s theorem states that a (linear) one-port network can be represented by one
current source in parallel with one impedance (Fig. 1.27). The equivalent current, iNor , is
obtained by shorting the port of interest and computing the current that flows through
it. The equivalent impedance, ZNor , is determined by setting all independent voltage and
current sources in the circuit to zero and calculating the impedance seen at the port. Of
course, ZNor = ZThev .

Port j

o r
ZN

r
i No

Figure 1.27 Norton’s theorem.

 1.3 Basic Concepts 19

Example Determine the Norton equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.20 if the output port is
1.11 of interest.

Solution As depicted in Fig. 1.28(a), we short the output port and seek the value of iNor .
Since the voltage across RL is now forced to zero, this resistor carries no current.

i Nor

v in Short
rπ vπ i 1 g vπ R L Circuit g v RL
m m in

(a) (b)
Figure 1.28

A KCL at the output node thus yields

i Nor = −gmvπ (1.29)

= −gmvin . (1.30)
Also, from Example 1.8, RNor ( = RThev ) = RL . The Norton equivalent therefore
emerges as shown in Fig. 1.28(b). To check the validity of this model, we observe that
the flow of iNor through RL produces a voltage of −gmRL vin , the same as the output
voltage of the original circuit.

Exercise Repeat the above example if a resistor of value R1 is added between the top terminal of
v in and the output node.

Example Determine the Norton equivalent of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.22 if the output port is
1.12 interest.

Solution Shorting the output port as illustrated in Fig. 1.29(a), we note that RL carries no current.
Thus,

v in rπ vπ i 1 g vπ
m

r π RL
1
( + g m ) vin
i Nor rπ r π + (1+ g r π ) R L
RL m

(a) (b)
Figure 1.29

vπ
i Nor = + gmvπ . (1.31)
rπ
20 Chapter 1 Introduction to Microelectronics

Also, vin = vπ (why?), yielding

 
1
i Nor = + gm vin . (1.32)
rπ
With the aid of RThev found in Example 1.10, we construct the Norton equivalent depicted
in Fig. 1.29(b).

Exercise What happens if rπ = ∞?

1.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

• Electronic functions appear in many devices, including cellphones, digital cameras,
laptop computers, etc.
• Amplification is an essential operation in many analog and digital systems.
• Analog circuits process signals that can assume various values at any time. By contrast,
digital circuits deal with signals having only two levels and switching between these
values at known points in time.
• Despite the “digital revolution,” analog circuits find wide application in most of to-
day’s electronic systems.
• The voltage gain of an amplifier is defined as vout /vin and sometimes expressed in
decibels (dB) as 20 log(vout /vin ).
• Kirchoff’s current law (KCL) states that the sum of all currents flowing into any node
is zero. Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL) states that the sum of all voltages around any
loop is zero.
• Norton’s theorem allows simplifying a one-port circuit to a current source in parallel
with an impedance. Similarly, Thevenin’s theorem reduces a one-port circuit to a
voltage source in series with an impedance.