Computer Networks I

Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other

through wires, optical fibres or optical links to exchange information or share
resources.

Advantages of networking:

 Share hardware resources such as printers and scanners

 Share software
 Share storage
 Enhanced communication
 Cost reduction

Components of a Computer Network

 Host/Nodes - refers to the computers that are attached to a network .

 Servers – Server is a specialized computer or device that facilitates the
networking tasks like sharing of data , resource sharing ,communication
among hosts.
 Clients – It is host computer that requests for some services from a server.
 Network hardware (NIC, router, switch, hub etc) –
o NIC –Network Interface Card – It is a network card
(hardware)attached to a host so as to establish network connections.
Every NIC has a unique physical address called MAC Address(6Byte
or 48 bits).This address is assigned by NIC manufacturer. NIC is also
known NIU(Network Interface Unit ) Or Terminal Access Point(TAP).
o Hub , Switch–These devices are used to connect nodes with network.
 Communication Channel ( cables, radio links etc) - In a network the hosts
and severs are connected through a communication channel .It may be
wired or guided media (Twisted pair cable ,co-axial cable ,optical fibre etc)
and wireless media or unguided media like (infrared wave ,microwave,
,radio waves, satellite etc)
 Software (Protocols ,network operating system etc)
o Protocol refers to a predecided set of rules using which all parties of
a network connect and interact with one another.
o A network operating system is a specialized OS that can handle
networking tasks.
 Network services – These refers to set of applications that provide different
functionalities over a network such as DNS(Domain Name System),File
Sharing ,VoIP (Voice Over IP ) etc..
Evolution of Networking
ARPANET − Advanced Research Projects Agency Network − the granddad of
Internet was a network established by the US Department of Defence (DOD) to
share the information.
NSFnet - In mid-80’s another federal agency, the National Science Foundation
(NSF) created a new high capacity network called NSFnet , which was more
capable then ARPANET that allowed only the academic research on its network

Internet
ARPANET expanded to connect DOD with those universities of the US that were
carrying out defence-related research forming network of networks called
Internet.
Internet is a world wide network of computer networks .The communication
protocol used by Internet is TCP/IP.
TCP- Transmission Control Protocol is responsible for dividing the file/message
into packets on the source computer .TCP is also responsible for reassembling the
received packets at the destination or recipient computer.
IP - (Internet Protocol) – is responsible for handling the address of destination
computer so that each packet is routed(sent) to its proper destination.
Interspace - it is client/server software program that allows multiple users to
communicate online with real time audio ,video and text chat in dynamic 3D
Environments .
Data Communication Terminologies

Channel
It is the medium used to carry information or data from one point to another. It may
be wired or wireless.

Data Transfer Rate

The speed of data transferred or received over transmission channel, measured per
unit time, is called data transfer rate. The smallest unit of measurement is bits per
second (bps). 1 bps means 1 bit (0 or 1) of data is transferred in 1 second.
Here are some commonly used data transfer rates −

 1 Bps = 1 Byte per second = 8 bits per second

 1 kbps = 1 kilobit per second = 1024 bits per second
 1 Mbps = 1 Megabit per second = 1024 Kbps
 1 Gbps = 1 Gigabit per second = 1024 Mbps
Bandwidth- it refers to the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies of
transmission channel.

High bandwidth channels are called broadband channels and low bandwidth
channels are called narrowband channels.

BAUD – It is the unit of measurement for the information carrying capacity of a

communication channel. (another unit of measuring data transfer rates)

Protocol
Protocol is a set of rules and regulations used by devices to communicate over the
network.
Some common protocols used over the Internet are −

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 Internet Protocol(IP)
 Point to Point Protocol(P to P)
 File Transfer Protocol(FTP)
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 Internet Message Access Protocol(IMAP)

Switching Techniques
In large networks, there may be more than one paths for transmitting data from sender to
receiver. Selecting a path that data must take out of the available options is
called switching. There are three popular switching techniques – circuit switching and
packet switching and message switching.

Circuit Switching
When a dedicated path is established for data transmission between sender and
receiver, it is called circuit switching. When any network node wants to send data, be
it audio, video, text or any other type of information, a call request signal is sent to
the receiver and acknowledged back to ensure availability of dedicated path. This
dedicated path is then used to send data. ARPANET used circuit switching for
communication over the network. Local telephone network is an example of this.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

Circuit switching provides these advantages over other switching techniques −

 Once path is set up, the only delay is in data transmission speed
 No problem of congestion or garbled message

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

 Long set up time is required
  A request token must travel to the receiver and then acknowledged before any
transmission can happen
 Line may be held up for a long time

Packet Switching
In packet switching, data is broken down into small packets with each packet having
source and destination addresses, travelling from one router to the next router.

Message switching- This switching uses store and forward technique in

which the sends the data to a switching office and stored there till the entire data
collected and then it is sent or forwarded to the receiver at a time .

Types of Networks
Networks can be categorized depending on size, complexity, level of security, or
geographical range.

PAN
PAN is the acronym for Personal Area Network. PAN is the interconnection between
devices or personal gadgets within the range of a person’s private space, typically
within a range of 10 metres.
A person can connect her laptop, smart phone, personal digital assistant and portable
printer in a network at home. This network could be fully Wi-Fi or a combination of
wired and wireless.

LAN
LAN or Local Area Network is a wired network spread over a single site like an office,
building or manufacturing unit. LAN is set up to when team members need to share
software and hardware resources with each other but not with the outside world.
A LAN may be set up using wired or wireless connections. A LAN that is completely
wireless is called Wireless LAN or WLAN.

MAN
MAN is the acronym for Metropolitan Area Network. It is a network spread over a city,
college campus or a small region. MAN is larger than a LAN and typically spread over
several kilometres. Objective of MAN is to share hardware and software resources,
thereby decreasing infrastructure costs. MAN can be built by connecting several
LANs.
The most common example of MAN is cable TV network.
WAN
WAN or Wide Area Network is spread over a country or many countries. WAN is
typically a network of many LANs, MANs and WANs. Network is set up using wired
or wireless connections, depending on availability and reliability.

What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the electromagnetic
signals.

Classification šOf Transmission Media:

Guided Media

It is defined as the physical medium through which the signals are transmitted. It is also
known as Bounded media or wired media. Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:

Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with each other. A
twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other transmission media. Installation of the
twisted pair cable is easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted
pair cable is from 0 to 3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the number of turns per
foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot decreases noise interference.
Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. There are 8 categories
unshielded twisted pair cable.

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for long-
distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of attenuation.
Maximum segment length is of 100 meters.

Shielded Twisted Pair

This type of cables comes with shielding of the individual pairs of wires which further
protects it from external interference. The advantage of STP over UTP is that it offers
greater protection from interference and crosstalk due to shielding .But it is heavier and
costlier than UTP .

Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example, TV wire is
usually a coaxial cable.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from the outer conductor.
 o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the copper mesh
prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Thicknet: This form of coaxial cable is thicker than thinnet cable and can be upto
500 meters long.
2. Thinnet : This form of cable is thinner and maximum segment length of 185
metres .

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed and it has better shielding as
compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth about 400Mbps.
o It can be used for broadband transmission i.e several channels can be
transmitted simultaneously (as with cable TV).

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o It is not compatible with twisted pair cable.

Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that carries light signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that are used to
send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic known as a
core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The more the area of the
core, the more light will be transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive index at the core
interface as to cause the reflection within the core so that the light waves are
transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a jacket. The
main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre strength, absorb shock and extra
fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o It is immune to electrical and magnetic interference i.e. noise in any form

because the information is travelling on a modulated light beam and not on an
electric signal.
o It is highly suitable for harsh industrial environments.
o It guarantees secure transmission and has a very high transmission capacity .
o These cables can be used for broadband transmission where several channels are
handled parallel.
o It supports maximum segment length 1km (for multimode) with bandwidth of
100Gbps and 5km (for single mode ) with bandwidth of 10 Gbps.

Disadvantages :

o Installation problem as fiber optic cables are quite fragile.

o Connecting two fibers together or alight source to a fibre is a difficult process.
o They are the most expensive of all the cables.
o Fiber optic cables are more difficult to solder.

UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any
physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy
can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all the
directions of free space. Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are
propagated in all the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned,
i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving
antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.

Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many
receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and mobile cellular
phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused
beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna
to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range
from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be
aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another
antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the
towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is from 4-6 GHz
to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a longer
distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by environmental
conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the installation
of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as the
installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication. Any

malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using microwave
transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is susceptible to
weather condition. This means that any environmental change such as rain, wind
can distort the signal.
 o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of microwave
transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility
than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station, and it amplifies
the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial

microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance from the
centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting, radio/TV
signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods so that it
remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason, another launch
of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for communication over
short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between two cell
phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a computer and cell phone
resides in the same closed area.
Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared communication
in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the sun rays
will interfere with the infrared waves.

Some other unguided media are Infrared , Laser ,Bluetooth ..

Network Topologies
The way in which devices are interconnected to form a network is called network
topology. Some of the factors that affect choice of topology for a network are −
 Cost − Installation cost is a very important factor in overall cost of setting up an
infrastructure. So cable lengths, distance between nodes, location of servers, etc. have
to be considered when designing a network.
 Flexibility − Topology of a network should be flexible enough to allow reconfiguration of
office set up, addition of new nodes and relocation of existing nodes.
 Reliability − Network should be designed in such a way that it has minimum down time.
Failure of one node or a segment of cabling should not render the whole network useless.
 Scalability − Network topology should be scalable, i.e. it can accommodate load of new
devices and nodes without perceptible drop in performance.
 Ease of installation − Network should be easy to install in terms of hardware, software
and technical personnel requirements.
 Ease of maintenance − Troubleshooting and maintenance of network should be easy.

Bus Topology
Data network with bus topology has a linear transmission cable, usually coaxial,
to which many network devices and workstations are attached along the
length. Server is at one end of the bus. When a workstation has to send data, it
transmits packets with destination address in its header along the bus.

The data travels in both the directions along the bus. When the destination terminal
sees the data, it copies it to the local disk.

Advantages of Bus Topology

These are the advantages of using bus topology −

 Easy to install and maintain

 Can be extended easily
 Very reliable because of single transmission line

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

These are some disadvantages of using bus topology −

 Troubleshooting is difficult as there is no single point of control

 One faulty node can bring the whole network down
 Dumb terminals cannot be connected to the bus

Ring Topology
In ring topology each terminal is connected to exactly two nodes, giving the
network a circular shape. Data travels in only one pre-determined direction.

When a terminal has to send data, it transmits it to the neighbouring node which
transmits it to the next one. Before further transmission data may be amplified. In this
way, data traverses the network and reaches the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

These are the advantages of using ring topology −

 Small cable segments are needed to connect two nodes

 Ideal for optical fibres as data travels in only one direction
 Very high transmission speeds possible

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

These are some the disadvantages of using ring topology −

 Failure of single node brings down the whole network
 Troubleshooting is difficult as many nodes may have to be inspected before faulty one is
identified
 Difficult to remove one or more nodes while keeping the rest of the network intact
Star Topology
In star topology, server is connected to each node individually. Server is also called
the central node. Any exchange of data between two nodes must take place through
the server. It is the most popular topology for information and voice networks as
central node can process data received from source node before sending it to the
destination node.

Advantages of Star Topology

These are the advantages of using star topology −

 Failure of one node does not affect the network
 Troubleshooting is easy as faulty node can be detected from central node immediately
 Simple access protocols required as one of the communicating nodes is always the central
node

Disadvantages of Star Topology

These are the disadvantages of using star topology −

 Long cables may be required to connect each node to the server
 Failure of central node brings down the whole network

Tree Topology
Tree topology has a group of star networks connected to a linear bus backbone cable.
It incorporates features of both star and bus topologies. Tree topology is also called
hierarchical topology.

Advantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the advantages of using tree topology −
 Existing network can be easily expanded
 Point-to-point wiring for individual segments means easier installation and maintenance
 Well suited for temporary networks

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

These are some of the disadvantages of using tree topology −

 Technical expertise required to configure and wire tree topology
 Failure of backbone cable brings down entire network
 Insecure network
 Maintenance difficult for large networks
Mesh Topology- Each node is connected to more than one node to provisde an alternative route
for transmission.
Fully Connected – Each node is connected with all other nodes directly providing more alternative
path for communication.
Identifying Nodes On a computer System
Two addresses are basically used to identify a Node in a network.
1. IP Address
2. MAC Address.
The IP address is used by TCP/IP Protocol to reach to the [Link]
is a unique address for host. It is a logical address which may change
depending upon the network or [Link] may be IPV4 or IPV6.
IPV4- is a 4 byte (32 bit) address written in the form of dotted decimal notation
where each byte ‘s value is separated with a period as :
______. ______._______._______ (Dotted quad)
IPV6 is a 16 byte address (128 bit) address written in the form of 8 groups of
hexadecimal numbers separated with a colon sign. Each group is of 16 bit .
___1____ : __2____: ___3____ : ____4___ : ___5___ : ____6___:___7___:__8___
MAC Address –
This is a Physical address which is assigned to the hardware network card (NIC-
Network Interface Card) of a host computer and remains fixed. Computer
without NIC card cannot become a part of a computer network.
The NIC manufacturer assigns a unique physical address to each NIC card , this
physical address is known as Media Access Control address (MAC Address).A
MAC address is a 6- byte address(48 bits) with each byte separated by a colon
sign.
___: ____:____:___:___:____
Red colored address is NIC -ID
Blue colored address is assigned by the Computer manufacturer.