Computer Networks 1 Course Code: SWE 236 Lecturer: MSc. Engr. PLETP. MVOGO BILEGUE Edouard Department of Computer Science Lev el 2 - First Semester ISSAM, Affiliated to the University of Bamenda_ L Chapter 1: Transmission Problems in a Network Lean objectives Itis expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to: Y Understand the various communication issues encountered in computer netw ork; ¥ Explain the causes of noise, attenuation and distortion in network communica tion; Introduction Today computer is available in many offices and homes and therefore there is a need to. share data and programs among various computers. Now a user sitting at one place can communicate with computers of any remote site through communication channel. Despi te all those advantages, we are facing impairments in network communication that slow down the quality of communication and their efficiency. The aim of this lesson is to pres ent to problems encountered in network communication 1. Transmission Impairments (Signal Quality Issues) Transmission impairments refer to imperfections in the transmission medium th at compromise the quality of the signal. Transmission impairment occurs when the recei ved signal is different from the transmitted signal. As we know, a signal can be transmitt ed as Analog signal or it can be transmitted as a digital signal. In Analog signals due to t ransmission impairment the resulting received signal gets different amplitude or the sha pe. In the case of digitally transmitted signals at the receiver side we get changes in bits (O's or 1's). The three major types are Attenuation, Distortion, and Noise. A) Noise Noise is the major factor for the transmission distortion as any unwanted signal gets added to the transmitted signal by which the resulting transmitted signal gets modif ied and at the receiver side it is difficult to remove the unwanted noise signal “d rT_ L > Types and Cause: ¥ Thermal Noise (White Noise): Random motion of electrons in a conducto 1 present in all electronic devices and transmission media. ¥ Impulse Noise: Irregular spikes of high-amplitude energy (e.g., lightning, f aulty equipment, arcing relays). This is a primary cause of burst errors (m ultiple consecutive corrupted bits). ¥ Crosstalk: Signal from one circuit or cable interferes with an adjacent circ uit or cable. ¥ Induced Noise: Noise generated from sources like motors, appliances, or s ‘trong electromagnetic fields (EMI). > Effect: Changes the value of bits (eg., a ‘0’ becomes a1), leading to data corrupt ion and errors > Mitigation: © Use of Shielded Cables (e.g., STP) and proper grounding to reduce external interference. © Employing Error Detection and Correction techniques (e.g., CRC, ARQ). Noise is diagrammatically represented as follows: Noise Point 1 Iransmission media Point 2 B) Attenuation Attenuation is generally the decreased in signal strength, by which the received s ign al will be difficult to receive at the receiver end. This attenuation happens due to the majority factor by environment as environment imposes a lot of resistance and the signa “d rTI strength decreases as it tries to overcome the resistance imposed se distance The above picture shows that the signal loses power at its travels time. Attenuati on is diagrammatically represented as follows Original Attenuated The longer the transmission distance, the greater the attenuatio o Medium Type: Different media have different attenua tion rates (e.g., fiber optic cables attenuate less than copper cables). > Effect If the signal weakens too much, the receiver cannot detect or interpret the data correctly, leading to data errors. > Mitigation: © Use of Amplifiers (for analog signals) or Repeaters (for digital signals) to boost the signal strength periodically. 0 Selecting a low-attenuation medium, such as fiber optic cable, for long dist ances ©) Distortion > Defi ion: The signal's waveform changes shape or form asiit travels through the medium. -_ L This kind of distortion is mainly appearing in case of composite signals in whic ha composite signal has various frequency components in it and each frequency comp onent has some time constraint which makes a complete signal But while transmitting this composite signal, if a certain delay happens between the frequencies components, then there may be the chance that the frequency compone nt will reach the receiver end with a different delay constraint from its original which lead sto the change in shape of the signal. The delay happens due to environmental paramet ers or from the distance between transmitter and receiver etc. > Causes: 0 Frequency-Dependent Propagation: Different frequency components of a composite signal travel at different speeds or are attenuated unequally, ca using them to arrive out of phase 0 Imperfect Media: The physical properties of the transmission medium, > Effect: The received signal is not an exact replica of the transmitted signal, makin g it difficult for the receiver to decode, especially with high-speed data > Mitigation: 0 Use of Equalizers to compensate for the frequency dependent attenuation and delay. Distortion is diagrammatically represented as follows Composite ‘Composite signal sent \- signal received prawwraae pe Wh phase ‘out of phase nits atthe sender At receivera 2. Data Integrity and Performance Problems These issues relate to the successful and timely delivery of data packets. A Packet Loss + Definition: Data packets fail to reach their intended destination. + Causes: o Network Congestion: Routers or switches become overloaded and drop pa ckets due to full processing queues/buffers © Errors in Transmission: A packetis corrupted due to impaitments (like nois, e), and the receiving device detects the error (using a CRC) and discards it © Faulty Hardware/Cables: Physical issues causing intermittent disconne cti ons. + Effect: Forces the sending device to retransmit the lost packets, increasing latenc y and reducing overall throughput. + Mitigation: o Address network congestion (e.g, increase bandwidth, implement Quality of Service - QoS) © Replace faulty cables or network equipment. © Properly implement Error Detection mechanisms (e.g., CRC) B. Latency and Delay * Definition: The time it takes for a data packet to travel from the source to the desti nation. * Causes: © Propagation Delay: Time taken for the signal to physically travel the distan ce._ L © Queuing Delay: Time spent waiting in the buffers of network devices (swite hes/routers) due to congestion. 0 Processing Delay: Time taken by network devices to examine and forward the packet (routing table lookups, etc) + Effect: High latency impacts real-time applications like VoIP, video conferencing, a nd online gaming. + Mitigation: 0 Minimize the number of ‘hops" (intermediate devices) in the path. o Use QoS to prioritize time-sensitive traffic (reducing queuing delay), 0 Utilize faster transmission media (eg. fiber optics) to reduce propagation delay. ©. Jitter + Definition: The variation in packet delay (latency) over time, Packets arrive out of sequence or with inconsistent spacing * Cause: Inconsistent queuing and processing times in network devices, often due t 0 fluctuating network congestion. + Effect: In real-time streams (audio/ ideo), jitter leads to choppy, distorted, or missi ng segments. + Mitigation: o Use a Jitter Buffer at the receiver to temporarily store arriving packets and release them at a constant rate, smoothing out the delivery. © Implement QoS to ensure consistent packet handling._ L 3. Error Control Techniques Since some errors are unavoidable, protocols include methods to manage them A. Error Detection © Goal: Determine if a transmitted data unit has been corrupted. If corrupted, it's dis carded, and retransmission is requested © Techniques: © Parity Check: Adds one parity bit to detect an odd number of errors. Simpl e, butweak. o Checksum: Adds the data units and transmits the sum; the receiver perfor ms the same calculation. Used primarily at the Transport Layer (eg., TCP/| P). 0 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC): A robust method using polynomial divisi on to generate a fixed-length checksum (typically 16-bit or 32-bit). Used att he Data Link Layer (eg., Ethernet, WiFi) B. Error Correction «Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ): The receiver requests the sender to retransmit t he data unit if an error is detected. This is the most common method in computer networks due to its efficiency. © Types: Stop-and-Wait, Go-BackN, Selective Repeat. + Forward Error Correction (FEC): Adds enough redundant information to the origin al data so thereceiver can detect andcorrect a limited number of errors without re trans mission. Used in one-way communication or when retransmission is costly (e.g, satellite links, wireless “d rTChapter 2: Computer Networking Ba: Learning objectives Itis expected that after going through this lesson, you would be able to: ¥ Understand the various communication issues encountered in computer netw ork; ¥ Explain the causes of noise, attenuation and distortion in network communica tion; Introduction Anetwork is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communi cation links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending an d/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network. Software modules in one system are used to communicate with one or more sof tware modules in the distance System. Such interfaces across a distance are termed as “peer to-peer" interfaces; and the local interfaces are termed as “service” interfaces. The modules on each end are organized as a sequence of functions called “layers”. The set o f modules organized as layers is also commonly called a “protocol stack’. ‘Over the years, some layered models have been standardized. The ISO Open Sy stems Interconnection (I$ 0/0S)) layered model has seven layers and was developed by a set of committees under the auspices of International Standards Organization (ISO) 1) Classification of Computer Networks “d rT_ L 1.1. Basedon Transmission Mode Transmission mode defines the direction of signal flow between two linked devices. Ther e are three types of transmission modes. > Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional. Among the sta tions only one can transmit and the other can only receive. > Half-Duplex: In half-Duplex mode, the communication is bidirectional. In this b oth station can send and receive but not at the same time. > FullDuplex: In Full-Duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simult aneously, 1.2. Based on Transmission Time > Synchronous Transmission: In synchronous Transmission both the sender an d the receiver use the same time cycle far the transmission. We send bits one after another without start/stop bits or gaps. It is the responsibility of the recei ver to group the bits. Bit stream is delivered with a fixed delay and given error r ate. Each bit reaches the destination with the same time delay after leaving th e source. > Asynchronous Transmission: In Asynchronous Transmission we send one star tbit at the beginning and one stop bit at the end of each byte. There may bea gap between each byte. Bit stream is divided into packets. Packets are receive d with varying delays, so packets can arrive out of order. Some packets are not received correctly 1.3. Based on Authentication > Peer to Peer Connection: In peerto-peer networks, there are no dedicated server s. All the computers are equal and, theref ore, are termed as peers. Normally, ea ch computer functions as both a client and a server. No one can control the ot her computers “d rT_ L > Server Based Connection: Most networks have a dedicated server. A dedicated server is a computer on a network which functions asa server, and cannot be used asa client or a workstation. A dedicated server is optimized to service req uests from network clients. A server can control the clients for its services. 1.4. Based on Geographical location Y Local Area Networks (LAN) LANis a small high speed network. In LAN few numbers of syst ems are interconnected with networking device to create network. As the distance increases between thenodes or system it speeds decreases. So itis limed to few meters only. Network swhich cover close geographical area. LAN used to link the devices in a single office, buildin g oF campus. It provides high speeds over short distance. Systems are connecting directly to Network. The LAN is owned by private people MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) Metropolitan area network is an extension of local area n etwork to spread over the city. It may be a singlenetwork or a networkin which more than 0 ne local area network can share their resources. Y Wide Area Network (WAN) WAN is collection of networks (or MAN). This network speed is les sthan the LAN network speed. WAN network connect systems indirectly. WAN spread over t he world may be spread over more than one city country or continent. Systems in this netwo rk are connected indirectly. Generally WAN network are slower speed than LAN's. The WAN n etwork are owned or operated by network providers. Ifit is owned by a single owner, then it i s called Enterprise network. Often these types have combination of more than one topology. 1.5. Based on Reliability Reliability is maintained by authentication > Connection-oriented: This type of communication establishes a session conne ction before data can be sent. This method is often called a "reliable" network service. It can guarantee that data will arrive in the same order. > Connection less: This type of communication does not require a session conn ection between sender and receiver for data transfer. The sender simply starts “d rTa L sending packets to the destination. A connectionless network provides minimal se vices 2) NETWORK TOPOLOGIES Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections of the various elements (link s, nodes, etc.) of a computer network. Network topologies may be physical or logical. Ph ysical topology means the physical design of a network including the devices, location a nd cable installation. Logical topology refers to how data is actually transferred in a net work as opposed to its physical design. Topology can be considered asa virtual shape o r structure of a network. Ja general physical topology relates to a core network whereas | ogical topology relates to basic network. The main types of physical topologies are: Bus Topology, Star Topology, Ring Topology, Mesh Topology, Tree Topology, Hybrid Topology 1.1. Physical Topology Itis the physical configuration of a network that determines how the network's computer sare connected. Common configurations include the bus topology, mesh topology, ring topology, star topology, tree topology and hybrid topology. a) Bus Topology is the simplest of n etwork topologies. In this type of t a & a ce ees opology, all the nodes (computers as well as servers) are connected r oo = tena 7 ae] oe to the single cable (called bus), by the help of interface connectors. T his central cable is the backbone of the network and is known as Bus (thus the name). Every workstation communicates with the other device through this Bu s. Asignal from the source is broadcasted and it travels to all workstations co nnected to bus cable. Although the message is broadcasted but only the inten ded recipient, whose MAC address or IP address matches, accepts it. A termin_ L ator is added at ends of the central cable, to prevent bouncing of signals. A barrel connector can be used to extend it. ‘Advantages (benefits) of Linear Bus Topology > It is easy to setup and extend bus network > Cable length required for this topology is the least compared to other network s. > Bus topology costs very less. > Linear Bus network is mostly used in smalll networks. Good for LAN. Disadvantages (Drawbacks) of Linear Bus Topology > Thereis a limit on central cable length and number of nodes that can be conn ected. > Its difficult to detect and troubleshoot fault at individual station. > Maintenance costs can get higher with time. > Efficiency of Bus network reduces, as the number of devices connected to it in creases, > Itis not suitable for networks with heavy traffic. > Security is very low because all the computers receive the sent signal from the source. b) Ring Topology In Ring Topology, all the nodes are connected to each-other in such a way that they make a closed loop. Each workstat ion is connected to two other components on either side, a nd it communicates with these two adjacent neighbors. Da ta travels around the network, in one direction. Sending an dreceiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN. Toke a “d rT_ L contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source computer. Advantages of Ring Topology > This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the d a when it receives an_ empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collisi on, > Even when the load on the network increases, its performances better than th at of Bus topology => Thereis no need for network server to control the connectivity between workst ations. > Additional components do not affect the performance of network. > Each computer has equal access to resources. Disadvantages of Ring Topology > Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. > This makes it slower than Startopology > If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected > Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different component s ©) Star Topology In Star topology, all the components of network are connected to the central device which may be a hu b,a router ora switch. Here all the workstations are connected to central device with a point-to-point co nection. So it can be said that every computer is i ndirectly connected to every other node by the help “d rT_ L of the central device. All the data on the star topology passes through the central device before reaching the intended destination. This later acts as a junction to connect differen {nodes present in Star Network, and at the same time it manages and controls whole of, ‘the network. Advantages of Star Topology > As compared to Bus topolagy it gives far much better performance, signals do n't necessarily get transmitted to all the workstations. Performance of thenetw orkis dependent on the capacity of central hub: > Easy to connect new nodes or devices. In star topology new nodes can be add ed easily without affecting rest of the network. Similarly components can also be removed easily. > Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network. > Failure of one node or link doesn't affect the rest of network. At the same time its easy to detect the failure and troubleshoot it Disadvantages of Star Topology > Too much dependency on central device has its own drawbacks. If it fails who le network goes down. > The use of hub, a router or a switch as central device increases the overall cost of the network. > Performance andas wellnumber of nodeswhich gu, can be added in such topology is depended onc apacity of central device. fete d) Tree Topology a Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bu s Topology. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks more cae ate connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a mai “d [_ L stem of a tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology. The diagram belo wwill make it clear Advantages of Tree Topology Expansion of Network is possibl__eand easy. Here, we divide the whole netwo tk into segments (star networks), which ca n be easily managed and maintained. > Ertor detection and correction is easy. > Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hu b. > If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected Disadvantages of Tree Topology > Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cabs le, if it breaks whole networks crippled > Asmoreand more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult. > Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used e) Mesh topology 3 In a mesh network topology, each of the network nade, comput ‘=e —— er and other devices, are interconnected with one another. Ever y node not only sends its own signals but also relays data fro m other nodes. In fact a true mesh topology is the one where e very node is connected to every other node in the network, Advantages of Mesh topology > Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology “d rTa L can withstand high traffic. > Even if one of the components fails there is always an altemative present. So data transfer doesn't get af fected. > Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes, Disadvantages of Mesh topology > There are high chances of redundancy in many of thenetwork connections. > Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topo logies > Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is tough f) Hybrid topology Hybrid, as the name suggests, is mixture of two or more than two different things. Similarly in this typ ras © of topology we integrate two or more different top \ ologies to form a resultant topology which has goo i Ley of dpoints(as well as weaknesses) of all the constitu ent basic topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific topology Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology & Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshootingis easy int his type of topology. > Scalable: I's easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing existing architecture. > Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requir ements of the organization and by optimizing the available reso_ L “] ures. Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology > Complexity of Design: It's not easy to design this type of architecture and it’s a tough job for designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be ver y efficient. > Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensiv e. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enou gh to work with different architectures and should be function even if a part of, network is down, > Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they r equire a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc. 1.2. Logical topology The lagical topology defines how the systems communicate across the physical topolog ies. Logical topologies are bound to network protocols and describe how data is moved across the network. Different network access existing are: CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA and To ken Passing a) CSMA It is amedia access control used to control the data flow so that data integrity is maintain €d, Le, the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative ways of handling the problems that oc cur when two nodes send the messages simultaneously. > CSMACD: (Collision detection) is an access method used to detect the collision. Once th e collision is detected, the sender will stop transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on 'r ecovery after the collision’ > CSMACA: (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used to avoid the colision by check ing whether the transmission media is busy or not. If busy, then the sender waits until th e media becomes idle, This technique effectively reduces the possibilty of the collision. It - does not work on “recovery after the collision’a L b) Token Passing ‘The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction. The most common access metho dof the ring topology is Token passing. It is a network access method in which token is passed from one node to another node. Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network > Working of Token passing: A token move around the network and it is passed fromcomp uter to computer untilit reaches the destination. The sender modifies the token by puttin g the address along with the data. The data is passed from one device to another device until the destin ation address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then it sends the acknowledgment to the sender. In a ring topology, a token is used asa cartier 3) Networking hardware Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equi pment needed to perform data-processing and communications within the network. Som e examples of networking hardware are: File Servers, Workstations, Network Interface Ca rds, Hubs, Switches, Repeaters, Bridges, and Routers: > Workstations: Each user computers connected to a network is called workstat ions. A typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network inte rface card, networking software, and the appropriate cables. > Network Interface Cards(NIC): It is an intemal device that provides the physi cal connection between the network and the computer workstation. > Hub: In general, a hub refers to a hardware device that enables multiple device s or connections to be connected to a computer. itis the most basic networkin g device that connects multiple computers or other network devices together. > Switch: It is a hardware device that filters and forwards packets through then etwork, but often not capable of much more. The first network device that was added to the Internet was a switch called the IMP. Switches (or concentrators) work the same way as hubs, but they can identify the intended destination of t “d rTL he information that they receive, so they send that information to only the comput ers that are supposed to receive it, > Repeaters: Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, itis often necessary to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater ele ctrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. > Bridges: A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into t wo smaller, more efficient networks. The bridge manages the traffic to maintai 1 optimum performance on both sides of the network. Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used between networks with the same protocol > Routers: A router is a device that forwards data packets between computer ne tworks, creating an overlay intemetwork. A router has a lot more capabilities t han other network devices such as a hub or a switch that are only able to perf orm basic network functions, > Gateway: A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another net work. On the Internet, a node or stopping point can be either a gateway node or a host (end-point) node. When a computer server serves as a Gateway node, th e gateway node also operates as a firewall and a proxy server. > Firewall: A software utility or hardware device that limits outside network acce ss to a computer or local network by blocking or restricting ports. Firewalls are a great step for helping prevent un-authorized access to a company or homen etwork, > Modem: The Modem is a hardware device that enables a computer to send an d receive information over telephone lines by converting the digital data used by your computer into an analog signal used on phone lines and then converti ng it back once received on the other end > Proxy: A proxy is a computer server or software program that is part of the gat -_ L eway server or another computer that separates a local network from outside net works. A proxy server will cache all pages accessed through the network allowi ng users who may wish to visit that same page to load it faster and reduce the networks bandwidth. Programs and devices that connect to the Intemet may a sk for a proxy, proxy address, or proxy server. 4) Network Infrastructure or Transmission Infrastructure Network infrastructure is divided into two parts. 1. Access Networks An access network is the part of a telecommunications network which connects end syst em to the first router or subscribers to their immediate service provider as shown in figur el Figure I Network Infrastructure Itis different from core network which connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Int emet service provider). An access network may be a so-called local area network within a company or university, a dial telephone line with a modem, or a high-speed cable-based or phone-based access network. Figure 7 Network Infrastructure Access networks can be loosely divided into three categories. “d rTL > Residential access networks, connecting a home end system into the network. Institutional access networks, connecting an end system in a business or educ ational institution into the network. > Mobile access networks, connecting a mobile end system into the network 2. Core Networks: Corenetwork connects all the routers to each other and ISP (Internet service provider). It is a main back bone for intemnet. Core network uses circuit switching and packet switchin g for data transmission. ISPs (Internet Service Provider): In internet bottom-totop the hierarchy consists of end sy stems (PCs, workstations, etc.) connected to local Intemet Service Providers (ISPs). The | ocal ISPs are in tum connected to regional ISPs, which are in turn connected to national and international ISPs. The national and intemational ISPs are connected together at the highest tier in the hierarchy.