HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES

CE8091 ENGINEERING L T PC
3 003
OBJECTIVE:
To introduce the student to the concept of hydrological aspects of water availability and
requirements and should be able to quantify, control and regulate the water resources.
UNIT I PRECIPITATION AND ABSTRACTIONS 10
Hydrological cycle- Meteorological measurements – Requirements, types and forms of
precipitation - Rain gauges-Spatial analysis of rainfall data using Thiessen and Isohyetal
methods-Interception - Evaporation. Horton‟s equation, pan evaporation measurements and
evaporation suppression - Infiltration-Horton‟s equation - double ring infiltrometer, infiltration
indices.
UNIT II RUNOFF 8
Watershed, catchment and basin - Catchment characteristics - factors affecting runoff - Run off
estimation using empirical - Strange‟s table and SCS methods – Stage discharge relationships-
flow measurements- Hydrograph – Unit Hydrograph – IUH
UNIT III FLOOD AND DROUGHT 9
Natural Disasters-Flood Estimation- Frequency analysis- Flood control- Definitions of
droughts-Meteorological, hydrological and agricultural droughts- IMD method-NDVI analysis-
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
UNIT IV RESERVOIRS 8
Classification of reservoirs, General principles of design, site selection, spillways, elevation –
area - capacity - storage estimation, sedimentation - life of reservoirs – rule curve

UNIT V GROUNDWATER AND MANAGEMENT 10

Origin- Classification and types - properties of aquifers- governing equations – steady and
unsteady flow - artificial recharge - RWH in rural and urban areas
TOTAL : 45
PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
The students completing the course will have
an understanding of the key drivers on water resources, hydrological processes and their
integrated behaviour in catchments,
ability to construct and apply a range of hydrological models to surface water and
groundwater problems including Hydrograph, Flood/Drought management,
artificial
rechargeability to conduct Spatial analysis of rainfall data and design water storage
reservoirs
Understand the concept and methods of ground water management.

TEXTBOOKS:
1. Subramanya .K. "Engineering Hydrology"- Tata McGraw Hill, 2010
2. Jayarami Reddy .P. "Hydrology", Tata McGraw Hill, 2008.
Linsley, R.K. and Franzini, J.B. "Water Resources Engineering", McGraw Hill
International Book Company, 1995.
REFERENCES:
1. David Keith Todd. "Groundwater Hydrology", John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2007
Ven Te Chow, Maidment, D.R. and Mays, L.W. "Applied Hydrology", McGraw Hill
International Book Company, 1998.
Raghunath .H.M., "Hydrology", Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1998.
 CE8091-HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING
AI3304
TWO MARKS WITH ANSWERS
UNIT I PRECIPITATION AND ABSTRACTIONS

1. Define Hydrology.
Hydrology means science of water. It is the science that deals with
occurrence, distribution and movement of water is on, above and beneath the earth.

2. What is the objective of the hydrological study?

* Estimation of water resources
* Study the processes such as precipitation, runoff, evaporation,
transpiration, infiltration and their interactions.
* Study of floods, droughts and strategies to combat them
* Hydro power

3. What is the importance of hydrology?

The importance of hydrology is the assessment, development, utilization
and management of water resources of any region.

4. Enlist the various phases of a hydrological cycle?

i) Precipitation ii) Infiltration iii) Evaporation
iv)Transpiration v) Runoff

5. Define Precipitation?
Any form of moisture reaching the earth surface is called precipitation. The
usual forms of precipitation are rainfall, snow, hail, sleet, frost, dew etc.

6. Define infiltration?
It is defined as the process by which water enters the sub-surface strata of the
earth. The infiltrated water first meet the soil moisture deficiency and there after moves
vertically downwards to reach the ground water table.

7. Define evaporation?
It is the process by which water from liquid state passes into vapour state
under the action of sunrays.

8. Define transpiration?
The process by which water passes from liquid to vapour through
plant metabolism is termed as transpiration.

9. Define runoff?
It is the precipitation excess after meeting the demands of
evaporation, transpiration and infiltration

10. Enlist the various forms of precipitation?

The usual forms of precipitation are
i) Rainfall ii) Drizzle iii) Hail iv) Dew
v) Glaze vi) Snow vii) Frost
11. What are all the types of precipitation?
i) Cyclonic precipitation ii) Convective precipitation
iii) Oragraphic precipitation iv) Frontal precipitation

12. How the precipitation can be measured?

It can be measured by rain gauge. The rain gauge may be
i) Recording type rain gauge ii) Non- recording type rain gauge

13. What are all the demerits of Non- recording type rain gauge?
It does not give information regarding
 Beginning of the rain
 End of the rain
 Intensity of rainfall

14. Enlist the three types of recording type rain gauge?

* Tipping bucket * Weighing bucket * Floating bucket

15. Write short notes on rain gauge density?

It is the no. of rain gauges is to erected in an given

area Rain gauge density = No. of rain gauges / Area

16. What are all the methods available to find the average depth of precipitation
over an area?
i) Arithmetic mean method ii) Thiessen polygon method
iii) Isohyetal method

17. Define isohyet?

An isohyet is the line joining the points of equal rainfall.

18. What is the use of Double mass curve?

It is used to check the consistency of the rainfall record. In double mass curve a
graph is drawn between the cumulative value of average rainfall of base stations as the
abscissa against the corresponding cumulative value of rainfall of the station under test
as ordinate.
19. Define Hyetograph?
It is a plot of rainfall intensity against time interval. It is derived from mass curve
and is usually represented as bar chart. It is used to predict the extreme floods.

20. Write short notes on intensity-duration curves?

Short duration – High intensity
Long duration – Less intensity

21. What is the use of frequency analysis?

It is used to find the probability of occurrence of extreme rainfall. The probability
of occurrence of rainfall whose magnitude is equal to or greater than specified magnitude
is given by
T = N+1/m where T = Return period
m= Rank
N= No. of years of rainfall record
22. State Hydrologic equation?
The Hydrologic equation is simply the statement of the law of conservation
of mass and is given by

I=0+S
Where I = Infolw
O = Outflow
S = Change in storage

23. What are the basic data required for hydrological studies?
The basic hydrological data required are
i) Climatological data ii) Hydrometeorological data
iii) Precipitation records iv) Stream flow records
v) Ground water table vi) Evaporation data
vii) Crops and their pattern viii) Water quality data etc.,

24. Define air mass?

A vast and deep body of water in which temperature and humidity
characteristics are relatively homogeneous at any given elevation is called an air mass.

25. Define air front?

The surface of contact between two air masses or between an air mass and
the surrounding atmosphere is called air front.

26. Define Cyclone?

A cyclone is a more or less circular area of low pressure in which wind
blows spirally inward in counter clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and
clockwise direction in southern hemisphere.
27. Distinguish between continental air mass and maritime air mass?

Sl. No Continental air mass Maritime air mass

1 Originated from land Originated from water bodies such as

oceans, lakes, rivers etc
2 Usually dry Almost moist
3 Fluctuations in temperature Uniform temperature

4 Unstable Stable

28. Enlist the factors affecting evaporation?

i) Temperature ii) Wind
iii) Atmospheric pressure iv) Soluble salts
[Link] the methods used to estimate the amount of evaporation from a
water surface?
i) Evaporimeters ii) Analytical methods iii) Empirical formulae
[Link] short notes on evaporimeters?
It is a device used to measure evaporation. These are water containing
chambers which are exposed to atmosphere and the loss of water by evaporation is
measured at regular intervals.
31. Enlist the types of evaporimeters?
i) Class A evaporation pan ii) ISI standard pan
iii) Colarodo sunken pan iv) US geological survey floating pan

32. Define pan coefficient?

Pan coefficient = Lake evaporation / Pan Evaporation

33. State the Daltons law of evaporation?

It states that the rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the
saturation vapour pressures to the actual vapour pressure of air.

34. Name the analytical methods of determining the lake evaporation?

* Water budget method * Energy balance method

35. How will you reduce the evaporation from a water surface?
i)Reduction of surface ii) Mechanical covers iii) Chemical films

36. What are all the factors affecting transpiration?

i) Atmospheric pressure ii) Wind iii) Sunshine
iv) Temperature v) Characteristics of plants

37. Enlist the instruments used to measure transpiration?

* Lysimeter * Field plots

38. Define infiltration capacity?

The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water is called
infiltration capacity.

39. Enumerate the factors affecting infiltration capacity?

i) Compaction ii) Surface cover iii) Temperature
iv) Characteristics of soil v) Nature of water

40. Define infiltrometer and mention its types?

Infiltrometres are the devices used to measure infiltration. There are two kinds of
infiltrometers
a. Flooding type infiltrometer ii) Rainfall simulator

41. Write short notes on Horton’s equation?

Horton developed the mathematical expression defining the infiltration
capacity was given by

42. Define o index?

It is the average rainfall above which rainfall volume equals the runoff volume.\
43. Write short notes on water losses?
The hydrologic equation states that

Rainfall – Losses = Runoff

44. Define effective rainfall?
Effective Rainfall = Rainfall – Interception Loss

45. Define Interception?

The precipitation intercepted by foliage and buildings and returned to
atmosphere without reaching the earth surface is called Interception.

46. Define Transpiration ratio?

Transpiration ratio = Weight of water transpired / Weight of dry matter

produced The average value of transpiration ratio being 700

47. Define evapotranspiration?

The combined effect evaporation and transpiration is called evapotranspiration
or consumptive use.
48. Write short notes on water balance method?
According to Horton’s water balance equation

E = I- Q – S where E = Evaporation
I = Inflow
O = Out flow and
S = Change in storage

49. Define W- Index?

It is the refinement of o index in that it excludes the surface storage and
retensions.
W = P – Q – S / tf where W = Average rate of infiltration
P = Total storm rainfall
Q = Total storm runoff
S = Volume of depression storage
Tf = Total time during which rainfall intensity is
greater than W
 UNIT II RUNOFF
1. Define runoff?
The portion of the precipitation which appears in the surface either perennial
or intermittent in nature is called runoff. The unit of runoff is cumecs.

2. Enlist the components of runoff?

i) Channel precipitation ii) Direct runoff iii) Overland flow
iv) Base flow v) Inter flow

3. Write short notes on drainage density?

Drainage density = Length of the channel / Area of the basin

4. Define hydrograph?
It is a graph drawn between discharges against time. It consists of direct
runoff and base flow.

5. Define unit hydrograph?

It is defined as the hydrograph if direct runoff resulting from an isolated
rainfall of unit duration occurring uniformly over the basin and produces unit runoff.

6. What are the methods to determine the unit hydrograph?

Unit hydrograph developed by the following two methods
i) Method of Super position ii) S-curve technique

7. Write short notes on method of super position?

If a D-h unit hydrograph is available and it is easy to develop hydrographs
ofnD-h where n is an integer. It is easily accomplished by superimposing n-unit
hydrograph with each separated from the previous on D-h.
8. Define S-curve technique?
It is a curve obtained from the summation of infinite series of D-h unit
hydrograph spaced by D-h apart. A smooth curve is obtained resulting to S shape curve
called S-curve hydrograph.

9. Define Synthetic unit hydrograph?

Unit hydrographs derived from empirical equations are called synthetic unit
hydrograph. The following three parameters are used for development of synthetic unit
hydrograph.
i) Base width ii) Peak discharge iii) Lag time
10. Define instantaneous unit hydrograph?
If the duration of effective rainfall approaches zero, the unit hydrograph may
be called as instantaneous unit hydrograph.

11. What are all the applications of unit hydrograph?

i) Once unit hydrograph is developed for a basin and it can be used
toobtain direct runoff hydrograph for any storm event on the basin.
ii) If the unit hydrograph is applied to max. probable precipitation on the
basin, then the max. probable precipitation is obtained.
[Link] are all the advantages of instantaneous unit hydrograph over direct unit
hydrograph?
iii) The advantage of IUH over DUH is that it eliminates the
problemof unit duration and the restriction of uniform distribution of rainfall in
time.
iv) The use of IUH is better suited for the needs of theoretical investigations on
therainfall-runoff relationship.
13. Define stream density?
The stream density of a basin is expressed as the [Link] streams per [Link].

14. Define drainage density?

It is expressed as the total length of all stream channels per unit area of the basin.

15. Define concentration time?

The time required for the falling rain at the most distant point in a
drainage area to reach stream outlet is called concentration time.

16. Define overland flow?

When a storm occurs, a portion of rainfall infiltrates in to the ground and some
portion may evaporate. The rest flows as a thin sheet of water over the land surface
which is termed as overland flow.

17. Define Direct runoff?

Direct runoff is used to include the overland flow and interflow.

18. Define isochrones?

The line joining the points of equal travel time of rainfall is
called isochrones. It is helpful in deriving hydrographs.

19. State Virgin flow?

It is a stream flow which is unaffected by the artificial diversions, storage or
other works of man in or on the stream channels.

20. Define surface runoff?

It is the part of runoff which travels over the ground surface through channel
to reach the basin outlet.

21. Define subsurface runoff?

It is the runoff due to the part of the precipitation which infiltrates the surface
soil and moves laterally downward towards the streams.

22. Define base flow?

It is composed of ground water runoff and delayed sub-surface runoff.

23. Define effective precipitation?

The part of the precipitation that contributes entirely to the direct runoff may be
called effective precipitation or effective rainfall.
 UNIT III FLOOD AND DROUGHT
1. Define design flood?
It is a flood discharge adopted for the design of structure after
careful consideration of economic and hydrologic factors.

2. Define MPF?
It is defined as the flood that may be expected from the most severe
combination of critical meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably
possible in the region. This is very large flood and it is very rarely used in design
except for reservoir spillways.

3. Define flood?
Any flow which is relatively high and which overtops natural or artificial banka
in any reach of the river is called flood. Floods are produced when the capacity of the
river channel is inadequate to carry off the abnormal quantity of water arising from
heavy rainfall.

4. State any two formulae to calculate flood discharge?

i) Dickens formula, Q = CA
ii) Ryves formual, Q = CA
where Q = [Link] discharge
A = Catchment area
C = Dickens constant varies from 6 to
30 C = Ryves constant
5. Define attenuation?
Owing to the storage effect the peak flow of the outflow hydrograph will
be smaller than that of outflow hydrograph. This reduction in peak value is called
attenuation.

6. Define lag value?

The peak of the outflow occurs after the peak of the inflow. The time
difference between the two peaks is termed as lag?

7. Define flood routing?

It is the procedure where by shape of the flood hydrograph at a particular
location on the stream is determined from the known or assumed flood hydrograph at
some other location.

8. Enlist the types of flood routing?

i) Channel routing ii) Reservoir routing

9. What are all the methods available to determine the flood peak?
* Physical indications of past flood * Empirical formulae and curves
* Concentration method * Overland flow hydrograph
* Rational method * Unit hydrograph method
*Frequency analysis
[Link] return period?
It represents the average no. of years within which a given event will be equaled
or exceeded.
 11. Define prism storage and wedge storage?
Prism storage is proportional to the outflow where as wedge storage is
the difference between inflow and outflow.

12. Define standard project flood?

This is the estimate of the flood likely to occur from the most severe
combination of the hydrological and meteorological conditions

[Link] short notes on flood control measure?

* By confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees, dykes
or flood walls.
* By channel improvement by cutting, straightening or deepening and
Following River training works.
* By diversion of a portion of a flood through bypasses or flood ways
* By providing a temporary storage of the flood peaks by constructing
upstream reservoirs and retarding basins.

14. Write short notes on flood forecast?

The flood forecasts are issued on the basis of the analysis of weather charts
and indicate the likelihood of heavy rainfall over the specified areas with the next 24
to 48 hours. All India forecasts are prepared every day at Poona.

15. Write short notes on flood warning system?

The food warning system basically consists of working out the flood hydrograph at
a given point sufficiently in advance, given the flood hydrograph of some gauge or gauges
sufficiently upstream, taking into consideration. The flood warning system is prepared by
i) Forecasting crest height and time ii) Flood routing techniques
With a properly developed system of scientific flood forecasting and warning,human toll and
destruction to movable properties could be greatly mitigated.
16. Define Frequency of Flood.
Frequency or Probability of flood, P, denotes the likelihood of flood being equalled or
exceeded. A flood is said to have a 50% frequency when the flood has 50 chances out of 100
chances of being equalled or exceeded. This frequency or probability is denoted by P
17. Define Recurrence interval of flood·

Recurrence interval or Return period, T, is defined as the number of years in which a flood
can be expected once or a flood of given magnitude will be equaled or exceeded only once.
Probability P and return period of flood of Tr are related as P=1/Tr.
18. Define Standard Project Flood
The flood that would result from a severe combination of meteorological and hydrological
factors that are reasonably applicable to the region. Extremely rare combinations of factors are
excluded.
 19. Write short notes on flood control measures?
 By confining the flow between high banks by constructing levees, dykes or flood walls.
 By channel improvement- by cutting, straightening or deepening and following River
training works.
 By diversion of a portion of a flood through bypasses or flood ways
 By providing a temporary storage of the flood peaks by construct upstream reservoirs
and retarding basins.
20. Define attenuation and lag.
Owing to the storage effect, the peak of the outflow hydrograph will be smaller than that of
the inflow hydrograph. This reduction in the peak value is called attenuation. The peak of the
outflow occurs after the pea.1< of the inflow, the time difference between the two peaks is known
as lag.
 UNIT IV RESERVOIRS

1. Differentiate b/w single and multipurpose reservoir.

A single purpose reservoir is for a single purpose. e.g conservation or flood control.
They are constructed to store water during the period of high flow for use during periods
of drought when the demand is more due to depletion of natural water storage.
A multipurpose reservoir is a man-made lake which is managed for multiple
purposes like water supply, flood control, soil erosion, environmental, management,
hydroelectric power generation, navigation, recreation and Irrigation.
2. What are the different types of single purpose reservoirs?

Depending upon the arrangement for releasing stored water, single purpose

flood control reservoir may be further sub-classified as

(i) Retarding reservoir

(ii) Detention reservoirs.

3. Differentiate b/w Levees and Flood walls.

The main purpose of artificial levees is to prevent flooding of the adjoining

countryside and to slow natural course changes in a waterway to provide reliable shipping

lanes for maritime commerce over time; they also confine the flow of the river, resulting in

higher and faster water flow. Levees can be mainly found along the sea, where dunes are not

strong enough, along rivers for protection against high-floods, along lakes or along polders.

A flood wall (or floodwall) is a primarily vertical artificial barrier designed to

temporarily contain the waters of a river or other waterway which may rise to unusual

levels during seasonal or extreme weather events. Flood walls are mainly used on

locations where space is scarce, such as cities or where building levees or dikes (dykes)

would interfere with other interests, such as existing buildings, historical architecture or

commercial use of embankments.

4. What are the preferable combinations for a multipurpose reservoir?

The preferred combinations are:

 (i) Irrigation and power
(ii) Irrigation, power and navigation

(iii) Irrigation, power and water supply

(iv) Recreation, fisheries and wild life

(v) Flood control and water supply

(vi) Power and water supply

(vii) Flood control, irrigation, power and water supply

5. List out the various zones of storage in a reservoir.

Reservoir storage is divided into four zones, or pools. These include, from top to

bottom, the flood-control zone, conservation zone, buffer zone and inactive zone.

The conservation and buffer pools, together, constitute the reservoir's active storage.

WEAP will ensure that the flood-control zone is always kept vacant, i.e., the volume

of water in the reservoir cannot exceed the top of the conservation pool.

6. Write short notes on reservoir sedimentation.

Sediment load carried by a flow will drop out if the transport capacity of flow is

diminished. In general, the capacity of a given flow decreases with a reduction of its

velocity. As a river enters the reservoir, the cross-sectional area of flow is increased, the

average velocity is decreased and sediment load starts dropping out. The order in which

different sediment sizes settle down and the location of deposits depends on three physical

phenomena—cessation of drag force on particles rolling along the stream bed (bedload);

reduction in turbulence level which determines the capacity of flow to maintain sediment

suspension and, development of density currents.

7. What is spillway?

Spillway is a structure constructed at a dam site for disposing the surplus water from

upstream to downstream.
8. State diff types of spillways.

1. Straight drop spillway

2. Ogee spillway

3. Trough spillway

4. Side channel spillway

5. Shaft spillway

6. Syphon spillway

9. What are the design considerations while constructing a spillway?

 The magnitude of the SDF may be set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of

the structure and the potential loss of human life or property downstream.

 The return period is set by dam safety guidelines, based on the size of the structure

and the potential loss of human life or property downstream.

 The volume of water expected during the design flood is obtained by hydrologic

calculations of the upstream watershed.

10. Define Siphon spillway.

A siphon makes use of the difference in the height between the intake and the outlet to

create a pressure difference needed to remove excess water. Siphons, however, require

priming or the removal of air in the bend for them to function, and most siphon spillways

are designed with a system that makes use of water to remove the air and automatically

prime the siphon.

11. Define Bell mouth spillway.

A bell-mouth spillway is designed like an inverted bell, where water can enter around

the entire perimeter. These uncontrolled spillways are also called morning glory, (after

the flower) or glory hole spillways. In areas where the surface of the reservoir may freeze,

this type of spillway is normally fitted with ice-breaking arrangements to prevent the

spillway from becoming ice-bound.

12. Draw a cross section of spillway.

13. What are the causes of failure of earthen dam?

1. Hydraulic failure

2. Due to seepage failure

3. Erosion

4. Structural failure

5. Sloughing

14. Define dead Storage.

It is the total storage below the invert level of the lowest discharge outlet from the reservoir. It

may be available to contain sedimentation, provided the sediment does not adversely affect the

lowest discharge.

15. Define Sedimentation zones with a neat sketch.

The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir can be divided into separate zones
16. How do you plan a reservoir?
• Reports on projects similar to that proposed which have already been constructed in the region.
• A geographical information system (GIS) for the area of interest may be createdusing a base
survey map of the region.
• Topographical data in the form of maps and satellite pictures, which may be integrated within the
GIS.
• Geological data in the form of maps and borehole logs, along with the values of relevant
parameters.
• Seismic activity data of the region that includes recorded peak accelerations or ground motion
record.
• Meteorological and hydrological data - of available parameters like rainfall, atmospheric and
water temperatures, evaporation, humidity, wind speed, hours of sunshine, river flows, river levels,
sediment concentration in rivers, etc.
• For water supply projects, data on population and future population growth based on some
acceptable forecast method, industrial water requirement and probable future industrial
development.
• For irrigation projects, data on soils in the project area and on the crops already grown, including
water requirement for the crops.
• For hydropower projects, data on past demand and forecasts of future public and industrial
demand for power and energy; data on existing transmission systems, including transmission
voltage and capacity.
• Data on flora and fauna in the project and on the fish in the rivers and lakes, including data on
their migratory and breeding habits.
• Data on tourism and recreational use of rivers and lakes and how this may be encouraged on
completion of the proposed reservoir.
17. What is the Effect of sedimentation in planning of reservoirs?
It is important to note that storage reservoirs built across rivers and streams loose their
capacity on account of deposition of sediment. This deposition which takes place progressively in
time reduces the active capacity of the reservoir to provide the outputs of water through passage of
time. Accumulation of sediment at or near the dam may interfere with the future functioning of
water intakes and hence affects decisions regarding location and height of various outlets. It may
also result in greater inflow of into canals / water conveyance systems drawing water from the
reservoir. Problems of rise in flood levels in the head reaches and unsightly deposition of sediment
from recreation point of may also crop up in course of time
18. What are all the procedures for planning a new reservoir?
The standard procedure that needs to be carried out for planned storages requires an
assessment of the importance of the problem to classify the reservoir sedimentation problem as
insignificant, significant, or serious. Assessment of reservoir sedimentation problem, in a particular
case may be made by comparing the expected average annual volume of sediment deposition with
the gross capacity of the reservoir planned. If the ratio is more than 0.5 percent per year, the
problem is usually said to be serious and special care is required in estimating the sediment yields
from the catchment. If it is less than 0.1 percent per year, the problem of siltation may be
insignificant and changes in reservoir performance.
19. Define life of reservoir.
The term ‘life of reservoir’ as loosely used denotes the period during which whole or
a specified fraction of its total or active capacity is lost. In calculating this life, the
progressive changes in trap efficiency towards the end of the period are commonly not
considered. In some of the earlier projects, it has been assumed that all the sedimentation
would occur only in the dead storage pocket and the number of years in which the pocket
should be filled under this assumption was also sometimes termed as the life of reservoir.
20. What are all the geological explorations for reservoir sites?
(a) Water tightness of the basins
(b) Stability of the reservoir rim
(c) Availability of construction material in the reservoir area
(d) Silting
(e) Direct and indirect submergence of economic mineral wealth
(f) Seismo-techtonics
 UNIT V GROUNDWATER AND MANAGEMENT

1. Define Transmissivity?
It is the flow capacity of an aquifer per unit width under unit hydraulic
gradient and is equal to the product of permeability times the saturated thickness of the
aquifer.
2. What are all the test available to find the yield of a well?
i) Pumping test ii) Recuperation test
3. Enlist the formations that serve as good aquifers?
* Unconsolidated gravels, sands, alluvium
* Lake sediments and glacial deposits
* Lime stones with cavities
* Granites and marbles with fissures and cracks
* slates
4. What are all the assumptions made in derivation of Dupuits equations?
* Stabilized draw down
* The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, of infinite areal extent and of
constantthickness
* Complete penetration of the well with 100% efficiency
* Flow lines are radial and horizontal and the flow is laminar
5. Write short notes on spacing of wells?
Pumping wells should be spaced far apart so that their cones of depression will
not overlap over each other resulting in the reduction of their yields and/or increased
draw downs to avoid well interference. The well should be spaced beyond their radii of
influence.
6. Define Aquifer.
An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth materials which not only stores water
but yields sufficient quantity of water.

7. Define aquitard.
It is a formation through which only seepage is possible and thus the yield
isinsignificant compared to an aquifer.
8. Define aquiclude.
It is a geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable. There are no
interconnected openings and hence it cannot transmit water.
 9. Define confined aquifer?
It is an aquifer which is confined between two impervious beds such as
aquicludes or aquifuges. Recharge of this aquifer takes place only in the area where it
isexposed to the ground surface.
10. Define unconfined aquifer?
It is an aquifer in which there exists a free water surface. Recharge of this aquifer
takes place through infiltration.
11. Define porosity?
The amount of pore space per unit volume of the aquifer is called porosity.
12. Define specific yield?
The actual volume of water that can be extracted by the force of gravity from
aunit volume of aquifer is called Specific yield.
13. State Darcy’s law?
It relating the velocity of flow in a porous medium which was given by

V = Ki where V = velocity of seepage

K = Coefficient of
permeability I = Hydraulic
gradient
14. Define hydraulic conductivity of an aquifer and state its units
The coefficient of permeability is also designated as hydraulic conductivity which
reflects the combined effects of the porous medium and the fluid properties. Units of K are
m/day or cm/s.
15. Define specific capacity.
The discharge per unit draw down is known as specific capacity of a well.

16. What are the characteristics of Perched aquifer?

When a groundwater body is separated from the main groundwater by a

relatively impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration above
the main body of groundwater it is called perched groundwater.
17. Define drawdown.
If an aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic and the water table initially horizontal
due to the radial flow into the well through the aquifer the water after pumping
assumes a conical shape is called cone of depression. The drop in the water table
elevation at a point from its previous state level is called drawdown.
 18. What is depression head and critical depression head in open well?
The difference in the water table elevation and the water level inside the. well
is known as depression head. Beyond certain depression head in an open well, the
depression head may cause dislodging of soil particles by the high flow velocities. Such
a depression head is called critical depression head.
19. What do you understand by pumping test?
Generally, pumping tests are carried out in boreholes where sub-surface exploration
is carried out. These tests can be done effectively up to a depth of 30 m and give the most
reliable results. The tests may be either pumping in or pumping out type. Pumping in test
can be conducted irrespective of the position of the water table in a stratum, while pumping
out test is suited for tests below water table.
20. Define storage coefficient.
The coefficient of storage S of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water released
from it or taken into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit decline or rise of
head. Under water table conditions the coefficient of storage is equal to the specific yield.
 HYDROLOGY
UNIT -I
Part -A

1. What are the data required for any hydrological studies?

2. What are the different forms of precipitation?
3. What is meant by Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) over a basin?
4. List the methods of computing average rainfall over a basin
5. Define hydrology.
6. List the different types of precipitation.
7. State the importance of ocean in Hydrologic cycle?
8. The recession curve of a hydrograph is sometimes called the depletion curve, why?
9. Define precipitation
10. Define orographic precipitation
11. What are the disadvantages of weighing bucket type?

Part -B

1. Describe the working principle of a non-recording type rain gauge with neat sketch,
Mentioning its advantages and disadvantages.
2. Explain the different methods of determining the average rainfall over catchment due to a
storm. Discuss the relative merits and demerits of the various methods
3. Explain with the help of a neat sketch about the hydrological cycle with its various components
4. How is precipitation measured? Discuss the three methods which convert the point
precipitation to areal precipitation and comment on the best method
5. The average annual rainfall of 5 rain gauges in a basin 890, 540,450,410 and 550 mm
respectively How many additional gauges are required if it is desired to limit the error to only
I0%?
6. Describe the working principle of a topping bucket type rain gauge with neat sketch
Mentioning its advantages and disadvantages
7. What are the precautions to be taken in selection a site for the location of a rain gauge?
Explain.

1
8. Describe the methods of determining the average depth of rainfall over an area.
9. (a) What is an optimum rain gauge network design?
(b) The normal annual rain fall depths of 6 rain gauge station are 55,77,40,57,85 and 23cms
respectively. If the error in the estimation of basin mean rainfall should not exceed 15% how
many additional rain gauge should be installed in the basin
10. Describe the working principle of a recording type rain gauge with neat sketch Mentioning its
advantages and disadvantages.
11. Explain briefly with neat sketches of „Hydrologic cycle‟

UNIT -II
Part -A

1. What is meant by infiltration index?

2. What are the factors affecting evaporation?
3. Define evapotranspiration.
4. State Darcy‟s law
5. Why should consistency analysis be carried out?
6. Define Isohyet.
7. Distinguish between steam flow and runoff
8. Define infiltration capacity rate.
9. Define storage coefficient
10. Two lake P-with surface evaporation 32.4m and Q -with surface evaporation 28.4m 1400m
away are separated by land lying on an impervious layer with an elevation of [Link]
the flow between the lakes taking the permeability as 34.4 m/day. Neglect the infiltration loss.
11. Why Rainfall-Runoff relationship is necessary? Justify
12. What is effective rainfall to an hydrologist?
13. Why should consistency analysis be carried out for rainfall data?
14. State Darcy's law and its limitations.
15. Sketch the stage discharge relationship and state its purpose.

2
 Part -B

1. Explain the step by step procedure involved to adjust the rainfall record at a suspicious station
through the double mass curve technique.
2. What are the factors should be considered in selecting a site for a stream gauging station?
Explain the dilution method of flow measurement.
3. State the Horton's equation for infiltration capacity curve and sketch with salient components
of the curve
4. Explain briefly about the O - Index and W - Index.
5. Explain with neat sketch the various methods of estimation of Evaporation
6. Differentiate the reservoir evaporation from the agricultural field Evaporation
7. Define infiltration. Describe how infiltration capacity rate can be measured using double ring
infiltrometre. How is better than a tube infiltrometre.
8. Explain with neat sketches how to evaporation is measured using evaporation pan
9. Elaborate on the factor affecting infiltration and different methods of infiltration
10. Write short notes on the various methods of reducing evaporation losses from reservoirs

UNIT -III
Part -A

1. What is a synthetic unit hydrograph?

2. The recession curve of a hydrograph is sometimes called the depletion curve
3. Define unit hydrograph
4. Write short notes on return flow
5. Define base flow
6. Define S curve hydrograph
7. Distinguish between hyetograph and hydrograph
8. Define time of concentration
9. What is meant by base flow in a stream
10. List any four factors which affect the hydrograph
11. List out the uses of unit hydrograph
12. Compare the hygrographs obtain from a watershed and rural watershed.

3
 Part -B

1. What are the physiographic factors affecting the flood hydrograph. Discuss the role of these
factors.
2. Explain a procedure of deriving a synthetic unit hydrograph for a catchment by using Snyder‟s
method.
3. The effective rainfall hyetograph of a complex storm ha s a duration of 12hours, with rainfall
intensities of [Link] and 5 cm/ hr respectively in successive 4hour period. The ordinates of the
corresponding direct runoff hydrograph read at 4 hour intervals are
150,250,520,313,394,212,102and 45 m3/sec respectively. Determine the ordinates of the 4-
hour unit hydrograph.
4. The ordinates of a 4h unit hydrograph are given below. Determine the ordinates of a 8h unit
hydrograph
(Nov/Dec2009)

Time (hour) 0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44

Ordinate in
0 24 84 159 184 151 103 64 36 17 6 0
m3/sec

5. What are the diffident procedures used for the base flow separation?
6. What do you understand by unit hydrograph? How is it derived? Explain its use in construction
of flood hydrograph resulting from two or more periods of rainfall
7. A runoff data at a stream gauge station for a flood are given below in the table; Drainage area
is 42 krn2. If the duration of rainfall is 3 hours, derive a 3 hours unit hydrograph for the basin
Time (hrs) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21
Total Runoff (m3/s) 50 47 75 120 225 290 270 145
Base flow (m3/s) 50 47 46 45 45 45 46 48
Time (hrs) 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45
Total Runoff (m3/s) 110 90 80 70 60 55 51 50
Base flow (m3/s) 50 53 54 57 60 55 51 50

4
8. Explain a procedure of deriving a synthetic unit hydrograph for a catchment by using Snyder's
method
9. The effective rainfall hyetograph of a complex storm has duration of 12 hours, with rainfall
intensities of 1.5, 0.5 and 5.0 cm/hr respectively in successive 4 hour period. The ordinates of
the corresponding direct runoff hydrograph read at 4 hour intervals are 150, 250,529,313,394,
212,102 and 45 m3/sec respectively. Determine the ordinates of the 4 - hour unit hydrograph.

UNIT –IV
Part –A

1. Define flood
2. Write short notes on Gumble‟s method
3. Write short notes on reservoir routing
4. Define prism storage
5. State the types of flood routing
6. What is meant by probable maximum flood?
7. What is flood? Mention its significance in hydrologic studies.
8. Differentiate between Reservoir routing and channel routing.
9. Define flood routing
10. Differentiate between maximum probable flood and design flood
11. Flood can only be estimated and not measured –substantiate
12. What is meant by flood routing and what are its types?

Part –B
1. Describe the Muskingum method of channel routing. Assume the values of the coefficients
K and X for the reach.
2. How the gumbel‟s method is used to determine the flood analysis?
3. Explain the procedure for reservoir routing
4. (a)Define the following ; (i) SPF (ii) MPF (iii) Design flood
(b)Enumerate the methods for determining maximum flood discharge in river

5
5. Determination the design flood discharge(allowing an increase of one third ) for a bridge
site with the following data:
Catchment area =2x105 hectares
Duration of storm =8hours
Storm precipitation =3m
Time of concentration +2hours
Gauged discharge for a part flood with average maximum daily rainfall of 18cm was 3400
cumec.
6. Explain the different methods of estimating deign floods with their limitation
7. Write short note on
(i) Flood control methods
(ii) Flood routing methods
8. Discuss the modified plus method of reservoir flood routing.
9. Write down the procedures for determination of flood magnitude by Gumble‟s method
10. Explain the different structural methods used for flood mitigation.
11. Describe the various empirical methods used for the estimation of peak flood
12. What are the methods of estimating design flood? What are their limitations?
13. Describe the method of estimating a T'-year flood using Gumbel‟s method of distribution.
14. What are flood control measures? Mention some of the flood control measures to mitigate
the effect of floods.
15. Describe the method of estimating a T,-year flood using log-Pearson type III distribution
16. Explain how the reservoir flood routing is estimated?

6
 UNIT –V
Part –A

1. Define Aquifer parameters

2. What is a perched aquifer?
3. List out Dupit‟s Assumptions
4. Define the term transmissibility co-efficient of aquifer
5. Draw a neat sketch to indicate the different types of aquifers
6. Distinguish between water table aquifer and pressure aquifer.
7. State Darcy's law and its limitations'
8. Explain the terms "storage coefficient" and "transmissibility”.
9. Distinguish between confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer
10. What are the assumptions made in driving thiem„s equibilirium equation for steady radial
flow?
11. State Dalton‟s law of evaporation and its applicability in the field.
Part –B

1. Discuss the principle of recuperation test of an open well with a neat sketch
2. Describe the different types of aquifers with neat sketches.
3. At a certain point in an unconfined aquifer of 3km2 area the water table was at an elevation of
102m. Due to natural recharge in a wet season its level raise to 103.2m. a volume of 1.5 Mm3
of water was then pumped out of the aquifer caving the water table to reach a level of 101.2m.
Estimate specific yield and volume of recharge during wet season.
4. A 30cm diameter well completely penetrates an artesian aquifer. The thickness of strainer is
25m. Determine the discharge from the well when the draw down in the well is 4m and the
coefficient of permeability is 45m/day. Assume radius of influence as 350m
5. Derive an expression for the steady state discharge of well fully percolated into a confined
aquifer.
6. Write short notes on (i) pumping test (ii) recuperation test on yield of a well
7. Derive Darcy‟s equation from first principle
8. A stream flows in the approximate centre of a flat alluvial valley bounded by impermeable
shale. The valley average 2000 m in width and contains an alluvial aquifer in hydraulic

7
 connection with the stream. The hydraulic conductivity of the aquifer is 0.054 cm/s. During
irrigation season recharge can be assumed to be steady and uniform over the valley.
Observation, wells‟ indicate that during irrigation the water table at a distance of 150 m from
the stream is 3.5 m above the impermeable shale and 1.5 m above the stream level. Make any
suitable assumptions if necessary and calculate the discharge from the aquifer to the stream and
find the maximum water table level.
9. Explain with neat sketches various types of aquifers.
10. State Dupuit-Forcheimer assumptions and its uses in groundwater hydrology?
11. List the various types of aquifers and explain with neat sketches about groundwater column
and its characteristics.
12. In a certain area groundwater discharge into a canal. The soil has hydraulic conductivity
K = 1.0 cm/s and a porosity of 0.2. The groundwater flow is practically horizontal and the
gradient of the head is 1 in 100 along flow direction, in plan view, that is at 45" to line of the
canal. A conservative tracer is introduced into the ground at a point "A" perpendicular
distance of 6 m from the canal. If dispersion and diffusion of the tracer are assured negligible
estimate how long it will take for the tracer to appear in the canal
13. How is the pump test conducted for evaluation of, aquifer parameters?

8
CE8020 MAINTENANCE, REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF STRUCTURES LTPC
3003

OBJECTIVE:
To acquire the knowledge on Quality of concrete, durability aspects, causes of deterioration,
assessment of distressed structures, repairing of structures and demolition procedures.

UNIT I MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRATEGIES 9

Maintenance, Repair and Rehabilitation, Facets of Maintenance, importance of Maintenance,
Various aspects of Inspection, Assessment procedure for evaluating damaged structure, causes of
deterioration.

UNIT II STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE 9

Quality assurance for concrete–Strength, Durability- Cracks, different types, causes–Effects due to
climate, temperature, Sustained elevated temperature, Corrosion

UNIT III SPECIAL CONCRETES 9

Polymer concrete, Sulphur infiltrated concrete, Fibre reinforced concrete, High strength concrete,
High performance concrete, Vacuum concrete, Self compacting concrete, Geopolymer concrete,
Reactive powder concrete, Concrete made with industrial wastes.

UNIT IV TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND PROTECTION METHODS 9

Non-destructive Testing Techniques, Load Test for Stability-Epoxy injection, Shoring,
Underpinning, Corrosion protection techniques–Corrosion inhibitors, Corrosion resistant steels,
Coatings to reinforcement, cathodic protection.

UNIT V REPAIR, REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES 9

Strengthening of Structural elements, Repair of structures distressed due to corrosion, fire,
leakage, earthquake-Transportation of Structures from one place to other –Structural Health
Monitoring- demolition techniques-Engineered demolition methods-Case studies
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
OUTCOMES:
Students will be able to understand
the importance of maintenance and assessment method of distressed structures.
the strength and durability properties ,their effects due to climate and temperature.
recent development in concrete.
the techniques for repair rand protection methods.
repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting of structures and demolition methods .

TEXT BOOKS:
[Link]-Theory and Practice,[Link] Company, 2008.
Vidivelli.B Rehabilitation of Concrete Structures Standard Publishes Distribution.1 st edition 2009.
Varghese.P.C Maintenance Repair and Rehabilitation & Minor works of building, Prentice Hall
India Pvt Ltd 2014.
Dodge Woodson.R Concrete Structures, Protection, Repair and Rehabilitation, Butterworth-
Heinemann,Elsevier,New Delhi 2012

REFERENCES:
DovKominetzky.M.S.,-Design and Construction Failures, Galgotia,Publications [Link].,2001
Ravishankar.K. Krishnamoorthy.T.S, Structural Health Monitoring, Repair And Rehabilitation of
Concrete Structures, Allied Publishers, 2004.
Hand book onSeismic Retrofit of Buildings,CPWD and Indian Buildings Congress, Narosa
Publishers, 2008.
[Link] Book on “Repair and Rehabilitation of RCC Buildings”–Director General works CPWD
,Govt of India , New Delhi–2002
 TWO MARKS
UNIT I - MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRATEGIES
1. Define Maintenance.
Maintenance is the act of keeping something in good condition by checking or repairing it
regularly. the work done to keep the civil engineering structures and work in a condition so as to
enable them to carry out the functions for which they are constructed.
2. Define Repair.
Repair is the process of restoring something that is damaged or deteriorated or broken, to good
condition.
3. Define Rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation is the process of returning a building or an area to its previous good conditions.
4. What are the two facets of maintenance?
The two facets of maintenance are
a) Prevention
b) Repair
5. Write the importance of maintenance.
 Improves the service life of structure
 Better appearance and aesthetical appealing
 Better serviceability of elements and components
 Leads to quicker detection of defects
 Prevents major deterioration leading to collapse
 Ensures safety to user.
6. What are the causes of deterioration?
a) Deterioration due to corrosion

b) Environmental effects

c) Poor quality material used

d) Quality of supervision

e) Design and construction flaws

7. Define physical inspection of damaged structure.
Some of the useful information may be obtained from the physical inspection of damaged
structure, like nature of distress, type of distress, extent damage and its classification etc, their causes
preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the samples for laboratory testing and analysis,
planning for in situ testing, special environmental effects which have not been considered at the design
stage and information on the loads acting on the existing structure at the time of damage may be,
obtained. To stop further damages, preventive measure necessary may be planned which may warrant
urgent execution.

8. How deterioration occurs due to corrosion?

 Spalling of concrete cover

 Cracks parallel to the reinforcement

 Spalling at edges

 Swelling of concrete

 Dislocation
 Internal cracking and reduction in area of steel reinforcement.
9. What are the steps in selecting a repair procedure?
 Consider total cost

 Do repair job in time

 If defects are few & isolated repair on an individual basis. Otherwise do in generalized manner

 Ensure the repair prevents further development of defects

 In case of lost strength, repairs should restore the strength

 If appearance is a problem, the number of applicable types of repairs become limited & the
repairs must be covered

 Repair works should not interface with facilities of the structure

10. Discuss about the environment effects which leads to deterioration of concrete structure.
Micro-cracks present in the concrete are the sources of ingress of moistures atmospheric carbon
di-oxide into the concrete which attack reinforcement and with various ingredients of concrete. In
aggressive environme4nt concrete structure will be severely reduces.
11. What is the effect of selecting poor quality material for construction?
Quality of materials, to be used in construction, should be ensured by means various tests as
specified in the IS codes. Alkali-aggregate reaction and sulphate attack results in early deterioration.
Clayey materials in the fine aggregates weaken the mortar aggregate bond and reduce the strength.
Salinity causes corrosion of reinforcing bars as well as deterioration of concrete.
12. How can we determine the cause for deterioration of concrete structure?
a) Inspect & observe the structure

b) Observe in bad & good weather

c) Compare with other constructions on the area or elsewhere & be patient

d) Study the problem & allow enough time to do the job

13. What are the factors to be considered by the designer at the construction site?
 Minimum and maximum temperatures
 Temperature cycles
 Exposure to ultra violet radiation
 Amount of moisture
 Wet/dry cycles
 Presence of aggressive chemicals
14. What are the steps in repair aspect?
a) Finding the deterioration

b) Determining the cause

c) Evaluating the strength of existing building or structure

d) Evaluating the need of repair

e) Selecting & implementing a repair procedure

15. Define the fixed percentage method of evaluating the strength of existing structure.
It is to assume that all members which have lost less than some predetermined % of their strength
are still adequate and that all members which have lost more than the strength are inadequate. It is usually
from 15% onwards higher values are applicable for piling % stiffness bearing plates etc.
16. Discuss about the design and construction errors leading to deterioration of a structure.
Design of concrete structures governs the performance of concrete structures. Well designed and
detailed concrete structure will show less deterioration in comparison with poorly designed and detailed
concrete, in the similar condition. The beam-column joints are particularly prone to defective concrete, if
detailing and placing of reinforcement is not done properly. Inadequate concrete cover may lead to
carbonation depth reaching up to the reinforcement, thus, increasing the risk of corrosion of the
reinforcement.
17. Discuss about the quality of supervision to be followed at a site.
Construction work should be carried out as per the laid down specification. Adherence to
specified water-cement ratio controls strength, permeability durability of concrete. Insufficient vibration
may result in porous and honey combined concrete, whereas excess vibration may cause segregation.
18. What are the possible decisions that can be made after evaluating the strength of a structure?
i. to permit deterioration to continue

ii. to make measures to preserve the structure in its present condition without strengthening

iii. to strengthen the construction

iv. if deterioration is exceptionally sever, to reconstruct or possibly abandon it.

19. How can we evaluate the strength of existing structure by stress analysis?
This method is to make detailed stress analysis of the structure, as it stands including allowances
for loss of section where it has occurred. This is more difficult & expensive. Here also the first stop is to
make preliminary analysis by fixed percentage method and if it appears that major repairs will be
required, the strength is reevaluated based on detailed stress analysis, considering all contributions to
such strength.
20. Define the load test method of evaluating the strength of existing structure.
Load tests may be required by the local building offered, but they should only be performed
where computation indicated that there is reasonable margin of safety against collapse, lest the test bring
the structure sown. Load test show strengths much greater than computed strengths when performed on
actual structures. When performed on actual structures. In repair work every little bit of strength is
important.
21. What are the possible decisions after finding a structure to be inadequate?
i. if the appearance of the existing condition is objectionable – repair now
ii. if appearance is not a problem then Put the condition under observation to check if it is dormant
or progressive.
iii. if dormant – no repair
iv. if progressive – check the feasibility & relative economics of permitting deterioration to continue
and performing a repair at some later date & of making the repair right away
22. Bring out the difference between repair and rehabilitation of a concrete structure.

Repair Rehabilitation
The repair of concrete structures may vary Support the structural members properly as
between a cosmetic treatment and total required. Remove all cracked, spalled and loose
replacements. concrete.
By a proper investigation and well designed Clean the exposed concrete surface and steel
equipment. Tools and materials can be reinstated reinforcement. Providing additional reinforcing
economically, an appropriate repair method can be bars, if the loss in reinforcement is more than 10%.
selected depending upon the cause and extent of
damage, importance of the structural elements, and
its location.

23. List the aspects of inspection to be carried out during and after the construction of a structure.
1. Electrical Accessories
2. Flushing sewer line
 3. Leakage of water line
4. Cleaning Doors, windows, etc
5. Checking Septic Tank/Sewer
6. Observation for cracks in the elements
7. Cleaning of overhead tanks
24. Compare preventive maintenance and routine maintenance with an example.
Preventive maintenance Routine maintenance
It is the maintenance done to prevent the defects The nature of the work done and interval of time
or damage occurs in the structure. at which it is done depends upon specifications and
The definition of preventative maintenance is materials of the structure.
systematic inspection, detection, correction, and The definition of routine maintenance is
prevention of incipient failures, before they simple, small-scale activities (usually requiring
become actual or major failures. only minimal skills or training) associated with
regular (daily, weekly, monthly, etc.) and general
upkeep of a building, equipment, machine, plant, or
system against normal wear and tear.

25. What is the objective of Maintenance?

Maintenance is the act of keeping something in good condition by- checkingor repairing it
[Link] include inspection and works necessary to fulfill the intendedfunction or to sustain
original standard of service. It is preventive in nature.
26. Differentiate between maintenance and rehabilitation.
Maintenance actions help slow the rate of deterioration by identifying and addressing specific
pavement deficiencies that contribute to overall deterioration.
Rehabilitation is the act of repairing portions of an existing pavement to reset the deterioration
process.
27. Define inspection and mention its purpose.
Some of the useful information may be obtained from the physical inspection of damaged
structures, like nature of distress, type of distress, extent of damage and its classification etc., their
causes. preparing and documenting the damages, collecting the samples for laboratory testing and
analysis, planning for insitu testing, special environmental effects which have not been considered at the
design.
stage and information on the loads acting on the existing structure at the time of damage may be,
obtained. To stop further damages, preventive measures necessary may be planned which may warrant
urgent execution.
 UNIT II - STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
1. How can use prevent the effect of freezing and thawing in concrete?
Concrete can be restricted from frost action, damage of the structure by the entrainment of air.
This entrainment of air is distributed through the cement paste with spacing between bubbles of no more
than about 0.4mm.
2. Write any two tests for assessment of frost damage?
The frost damage can be assessed by several ways:
i) Assessment of loss of weight of a sample of concrete subjected to a certain number of cycles of
freezing and thawing is one of the methods
ii) Measuring the change in the ultrasonic pulse velocity or the damage in the change in the dynamic
modulus of elasticity of specimen is another method.
3. How does a concrete structure get affected by heat?
Heat may affect cone and as a result of:-
 the removal of evaporable water
 the removal of combined water
 alteration of cement past
 alteration of aggregate
 change of the bond between aggregate and paste
4. How can you control cracks in a structure?
 Use of good coarse aggregates free from clay lumps
 Use of fine aggregate free from silt, mud & organic constituent.
 Use of sound cement.
 Provision of expansion & contraction joint.
 Provide less water-cement ratio.
5. Define aggregate splitting?
This phenomenon occurs most frequently when hard aggregates are used in concrete. The thermal
stresses except close to corners are predominantly compressive near to the heated surface. This stress
causes the aggregate to split in this direction and the fractures may propagate through the mortar matrix
leading to deterioration.
6. What the factor affecting chemical attack on concrete?
 High porosity
 Improper choice of cement type for the conditions of exposure
 Inadequate curing prior to exposure
 Exposure to alternate cycles of wetting and drying
7. Write the methods of corrosion protection?
 Corrosion inhibitors
 Corrosion resisting steels
 Coatings for steel
 Cathodic protection
8. List out some coating for reinforcement to prevent corrosion?
 Organic coating
 Epoxy coating
 Metallic coating
 Zinc coating
9. Define corner reparation?
This is a very common occurrence and appears to be due to a component of tensile stress causing
splitting across a corner. In fire tests, corner separation occurs most often in beams and columns made of
Quartz aggregate and only infrequently with light weight aggregates.
10. List any four causes of cracks?
 Use of unsound material
 Poor & bad workmanship
 Use of high water-cement ratio
 Freezing & thawing
 Thermal effects
 Shrinkage stresses
11. What are the types of cracks?
 Class-1: Cracks leading to structural failure

 Class-2: Cracks causing corrosion

 Class-3: Cracks affecting function

 Class-4: Cracks affecting appearance

12. What changes occur, when hot rolled steel is heated to 500oC?
At temp of 500oC-600oC the yield stress is reduced to the order of the working stress and the
elastic modulus is reduced by one-third. Bars heated to this temp virtually recover their normal
temperature.
13. List out the various types of spalling.
i) General or destructive spalling
ii) Local spalling which is subdivided as
  aggregate splitting
 comer separations
 surface spalling
 Sloughing off
14. List some faults in construction planning?
 Overloading of members by construction loads
 Loading of partially constructed members
 Differential shrinkage between sections of construction
 Omission of designed movement joints
15. Define corrosion?
The gradual deterioration of concrete by chemically aggressive agent is called “corrosion”
16. Give some examples for corrosion inhibitors?
a) Anodic inhibitors

b) Cathodic inhibitors

c) Mixed inhibitors

d) Dangerous & safe inhibitors

17. Define effective cover?
The cover to reinforcement measured from centre of the main reinforcement up to the surface of
concrete in tension is called “Effective cover”
18. Define corrosion inhibitor?
Corrosion inhibitor is an admixture that is used in concrete to prevent the metal embedded in
concrete from corroding.
19. What are the operations in quality assurance system?
 Feed back
 Auditing
 Review line
 Organization
20. List the various components of quality control.
Five components of a quality (control) assurance system are:
 Standards
 Production control
 Compliance control
 Task and responsibilities and
  Guarantees for users
21. Mention the various limiting crack width for structures exposed to environmental conditions
recommended as per IS456-2000.
As per IS 456-2000, limits on crack width
1. Mild exposure conditions – 0.3 mm
2. Moderate exposure conditions – 0.2 mm
3. Severe – 0.1 mm
UNIT III - SPECIAL CONCRETES
1. List the various types of polymer concrete.
i) Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
ii) Polymer cement concrete (PCC)
iii) Polymer Concrete (PC)
iv) Partially impregnated and surface coat
v) Polymer Concrete.
vi) Polymer impregnated concrete (PIC)
2. Give the various monomers used in polymer concrete.
 Mehylmethacrylate (MINS)
 Styretoc
 Acrylonitrile
 t-butyl styrene
3. Define polymer concrete.
Polymer concrete is a aggregate bound a polymer binder instead of Portland cement as in
conventional concrete pc is normally use to minimize voids volume in aggregate mars. This can be
achieve by properly grading and mixing of a to attain the max density and (mixing) the aggregates to
attain (maximum) minimum void volume. The entrapped aggregated are prepacked and vibrated in a
mould.
4. What are the uses of Polymer concrete?
During curing Portland cement form mineral voids. Water can be entrapped in these voids which
are freezing can readily attack the concrete. Also alkaline Portland cement is easily attached by
chemically aggressive materials which results in rapid determination, there as using polymers can
compact chemical attack.
5. What is sulphur infiltrated concrete?
New types of composition have been produced by the recently developed techniques of
impregnating porous material like concrete with sulphur. Sulphur impregnation has shown great
improvement in strength.
6. What are the applications of sulphur infiltrated concrete?
Sulphur – (impregnated) infiltration can be employed in the precast industries. Sulphur infiltration
concrete should found considerable use in industry situation where high corrosion resistant concrete is
required. This method cannot be conveniently applied to cast- in place concrete Sulphur impregnation has
shown area improvement in strength.
7. What is Vacuum concrete?

Only about half of the water added in concrete goes into chemical combination and the remaining
water is used to make concrete workable. After laying concrete, water which was making concreting
workable is extracted by a special method known as “vacuum method”.

8. What are the equipments used in vacuum concrete?

The equipment essentially consists of:-

i. vacuum pump
ii. water separator and
iii. filtering mat

9. What is meant by fiber Reinforced concrete?

The fiber reinforced concrete can be defined as composite material consisting of mixture of
cement mortar or concrete and discontinuous. Described uniformly dispersed suitable fibbers, continuous
mesh.
10. What are types of fibres used in fiber reinforced concrete?
 The fibers that could be used are steel fiber, poly propylene, nylon, Asbestos, Glass and carbon.
 Fiber is a small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristic properties.
 Steel fiber is one of the most commonly used fibre generally round fibre are used the dia varies
from 0.25 to 0.75mm.
 The steel fiber is likely to get rusted and lose of its strength.
 Use of steel fiber makes significant improvement in flexural, impact and fatigue strength of
concrete.
11. What are the Factors affecting fibre reinforced concrete?
 Transfer of stress between matrix and fibre.
 Types of fibres.
 Fibre geometry.
 Fibre content.
 Distribution of fibre mixing.
12. Define High-performance concrete.
High-performance concrete is a term used to describe concrete with special properties not
attributed to normal concrete. High-performance means that the concrete has one or more of the
following properties: low shrinkage, low permeability, a high modulus of elasticity, or high strength.

13. What is meant by High performance concrete?

High performance concrete is a concrete mixture, which possess high durability and high strength
when compared to conventional concrete. This concrete contains one or more of cementitious materials
such as fly ash, Silica fume or ground granulated blast furnace slag and usually a super plasticizer.

14. What is meant by self compacting concrete?

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is a flowing concrete mixture that is able to consolidate under its
own weight. The highly fluid nature of SCC makes it suitable for placing in difficult conditions and in
sections with congested reinforcement.

15. What is meant by geopolymer concrete? List the materials used for making geopolymer
concrete.

Geopolymer concrete is a type of concrete that is made by reacting aluminate and silicate
bearing materials with a caustic activator. Commonly, waste materials such as fly ash or slag from iron
and metal production are used, which helps lead to a cleaner environment.

16. What is meant by Reactive powder concrete?

Reactive powder concrete is a relatively new cementitious material. Its main features include a
high percentage ingredient of Portland cement, very low water-to-binder (cement + silica fume) ratio, a
high dosage of super-plasticiser and the presence of very fine crushed quartz and silica fume.

17. Write the advantages of using reactive powder concrete in structures.

 Due to its High ductility property it always competes with steel.

 Fine ingredients make the concrete void proof and no leakage of gas or liquid occurs.

 There is a reduction of dead load of structure due to higher shear capacity along with superior
strength.

 RPC members have great resistance against seismic forces.

18. What is the effect of adding discrete fibres in concrete?

Mixing discrete glass fibers in concrete improves its properties under ambient temperatures. The
resulting material may be considered as a new composite material with improved tensile
strength and cracking resistance.

It can enhance the resistance of RC beams subjected to fire besides increasing the flexural and
shear capacities of the RC beams

19. Differentiate filling ability and passing ability of self compacting concrete.

Filling ability Passing ability

It is the ability of SCC to flow into all spaces It is the ability of SCC to flow through tight
within the formwork under its own weight. Tests, openings, such as spaces between steel reinforcing
such as slump flow, V-funnel etc, are used to bars, under its own weight. Passing ability can be
determine the filling ability of fresh concrete. determined by using U-box, L-box, Fill-box, and J-
ring test methods.
20. Enumerate the methods of producing high strength concrete.

 Use of Admixture
 Re-Vibration
 High-speed Slurry Mixing
 Inhibition or Prevention of Cracks
 Sulfur Filling or Impregnation
 Use of Cementitious Aggregates
 Seeding

UNIT IV - TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND PROTECTION METHODS

1. Define grouting.
Grouting can be performed in a similar manner as the injection of an epoxy. However the use of
an epoxy is the better solution except where considerations for the resistance of cold weather prevent
such use in which case grouting is the comparable alternative.
2. What are protective surface coatings?
During of concrete can be substantially improved by preventive maintenance in the form of
weather proofing surface treatments. These treatments are used to seal the concrete surface ad to inhibit
the intrusion of moisture or chemicals.
3. List some materials used as protective surface coatings.
Materials used for this purpose include oils such as linseed oils, petroleum etc.
4. Define dry pack.
Dry packing is the hand placement of a very dry mortar and subsequent tamping or ramming of
the mortar into place producing an intimate contact between the old and new concrete work.
5. Give a brief account on routing and sealing.
This method involves enlarging the cracks along its exposed surface, filling and finally sealing it
with a suitable material. This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated.

6. Define external stressing.

Development of cracking in concrete is due to tensile stress and can be arrested by removing
these stresses. Further the cracks can be closed by including a compressive force sufficient to over come
the tension a residual compression.
7. Write short notes on Autogenous healing.
The inherent ability of concrete to heal cracks within “autogenous healing”. This is used for
sealing dormant cracks such as precast units cracked in handling of cracks developed during the precast
pilling sealing of cracks in water hands and sealing of cracks results of temporary conditions.
8. Give a brief account on routing and sealing.
This method involves enlarging the cracks along its exposed surface, filling and finally sealing it
with a suitable material. This is the simplest and most common technique for sealing cracks and is
applicable for sealing both fine pattern cracks and larger isolated.
9. List any four causes of cracks?
 Use of unsound material

 Poor & bad workmanship

 Use of high water-cement ratio

 Freezing & thawing

 Thermal effects
 Shrinkage stresses
10. What are the types of cracks?
a) Class-1: Cracks leading to structural failure

b) Class-2: Cracks causing corrosion

c) Class-3: Cracks affecting function

11. What is pneumatically applied mortar?
Pneumatically applied mortar is used for the restoration of when the location of deterioration is
relatively at shallow depth. It can be used on vertical as well as on horizontal surfaces and is particularly
restoring surfaces spalled to corrosion of the reinforcement. Damaged concrete elements also retrofitted
using this method. This also has known as gunning or shotcreting techniques.
12. What is caging with steel?
A steel caging is prepared and made to surround the existing masonry so that lateral expansion
when it is loaded in compression. The confinement of masonry will steel cage increases its capacity and
ductility.
13. Give a brief note on dogs in stitching.
The dogs are thin and long and to cannot take much of compressive force. The dogs must be
stiffened and strengthened by encasement in an overlay or some similar means.
14. Give some concrete materials used to overcome weathering action on concrete.
The two concrete repair materials used were
(i) a flow able concrete with 16 mm aggregate and containing a plasticizer and a shrinkage-compensating
additive, to be cast against forms in heights up to 1.5m, and
(ii) a patching mortar to be applied brendering, for areas less than .01 m2
15. Give a brief note on shoring and underpinning in demolition.
The demolition contractor has a legal obligation to show technical competence when carrying out
the work. When removing sections of the building which could have leave other parts unsafe, adequate
temporary supports and shoring etc. must be provided.
16. Enumerate the criteria for the selection of materials for repair and rehabilitation of a concrete
structure.
 Ease of application.
 Cost.
 Available labor skills and equipment.
 Shelf life of the material.
 Pot life of the material.
 Type of damage.
 Compatibility of the repair material with damaged concrete.
 Appearance of finished surface.
17. How do you protect the steel structures from corrosion?
 Access for coating application and maintenance
 Avoidance of moisture and debris traps
 Avoidance or sealing of crevices
 Drainage and ventilation to minimize the time of wetness
 Careful management of contact with other materials

18. What is the purpose of underpinning?
 For the purpose of leading an old shallow foundation to the deeper depth when the
adjoining building is constructed with a deep foundation.
 Underpinning is done for building a basement in the existing building.
 Underpinning is done to deepen the existing foundation (resting on poor strata) and make
it rest on deeper soil strata of higher bearing capacity.
 To strengthen a settled foundation that may be caused by cracks in the wall.
19. State the properties of corrosion inhibitors.
 Corrosion inhibitors possess a high vapor pressure at normal temperature and protect the metal by
forming a bond and barrier layer on the metal surface.
 In general, a weak volatile acid or base that easily hydrolyzes provides the most effective
inhibition.
20. Mention some of the situations which demand underpinning.
 The soil supporting the foundation has changed in some way e.g. through subsidence,
expansion/contraction due to moisture, large trees nearby, damaged plumbing left unrepaired.
 The properties of the soil were not adequately understood during the original design of the
foundation - meaning the foundation is not adequate for the conditions.

 The way the structure is used has changed e.g. following a major renovation
 New construction nearby resulting in the excavation of soil supporting existing foundations
 To increase the capability of existing foundations e.g. to support another storey to the
building
 Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods or droughts that have caused the structure to
move or become unstable.

21. Why reinforcement is coated in RCC structure?

Coating of the reinforcement reduces the risk of corrosive attack in concrete and two coating
systems are widely applied to steel for this purpose; namely, fusion bonded epoxy coatings and hot-dip
galvanized coatings.
22. Define shoring and write its purpose.
Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe structure.
Purpose of shoring
 Shoring is the provision of a support system for trench faces used to prevent movement of soil,
underground utilities, roadways, and foundations.
 Shoring or shielding is used when the location or depth of the cut makes sloping back to the
maximum allowable slope impractical.
 UNIT V - REPAIR, REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES
1. What are the preliminary investigations before demolition of a structure?
 The demolition contractor should have ample experience of the type of work to be offered;
 Fully comprehensive insurance against all risks must be maintained at all times;
 An experienced supervisor should be continuously in charge of the work;
 The contract price should include all safety precautions included in the relevant building
regulations;
 The completion date should be realistic, avoiding and need to take risks to achieve the date
2. Write about protective clothing given before demolition.
Buildings where chemicals have been stored or where asbestos, lead paint, dust or fumes may be
present will require specialized protective clothing
3. Give a brief note on shoring and underpinning in demolition.
The demolition contractor has a legal obligation to show technical competence when carrying out
the work. When removing sections of the building which could have leave other parts unsafe, adequate
temporary supports and shoring etc. must be provided.
4. What are the major factors in selecting a demolition procedure?
 Majors factors to be considered in selecting an appropriate technique include:-
 Safety of personnel and public
 Working methods
 Legislation applicable
 Insurance cover
5. Give the categories of demolition techniques.
 Demolition techniques may be categorized as:-
 Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools or machines, to reduce the height of the
building or structure gradually;
 Deliberate controlled collapse, demolition to be completed at ground level.
6. Write short notes on demolition by hand.
Demolition of buildings or structure by hand-held tools such as electric or pneumatic breakers,
sometimes as a preliminary to using other methods, should be carried out, where practicable, in the
reverse order to the original construction sequence. Lifting appliances may be necessary to hold larger
structural members during cutting and for lowering severed structural members and other debris.
7. In what cases demolition by machine can be done?
Simple roof structures supported on wall plates should normally be demolished to the level of
wall plates by hand, but if this may involve unsafe working, then demolition totally by machine may be
appropriate.
8. Write short notes on balling machine.
Balling machines generally comprise a drag-line type crawler chassis fitted with a lattice crane
jib. The demolition ball, with a steel anti -spin device, is suspended from the lifting rope and swung by
the drag rope.
9. What is a hydraulic pusher arm?
Articulated, hydraulically-powered pusher-arm machines are normally mounted on a tracked or
wheeled chassis, and have a toothed plate or hook for applying for applying a horizontal force to a wall.
The machine should stand on a firm level base and apply force by a controlled movement of the pusher
arm.
10. What is pre-weakening?
Buildings and structures normally have structural elements designed to carry safely the loading
likely to be imposed during their life. As a preliminary to a deliberate controlled collapse, after loads
such as furnishings, plant and machinery have been removed, the demolition contractor may be able to
weaken some structural elements and remove those new redundant.
This pre weakening is essentially a planned exercise and must be preceded by an analysis of its
possible effects on the structure until it collapses, to ensure that the structural integrity of the building is
not jeopardized accidentally. Insufficient information and planning relating to the structure may result in
dangerous and unsafe work.
11. What is deliberate collapse?
The deliberate collapse of the whole or part of a building or structure requires particularly high
standards of planning, supervisions and execution, and careful consideration of its effect on other parts of
the structure or on adjacent buildings or structures.
A surrounding clear area and exclusion zone are required to protect both personnel and property
from the fall of the structure itself and debris which may be thrown up by the impact.
12. What are the considerations before demolition?
 Considerations should be given to:-
 Conducting a site and building survey, with a structural bias;

 The examination of drawings and details of existing construction where available;

 The preparation of details and drawings from site survey activities where no such information is
available;
  Establishing previous use of premises, especially with regard to flammable substances or
substances hazardous to health or safety;

 Programming the sequence of demolition work;

 The preparation of a Method Statement.
13. What is overlay?
Overlays may be used to restore a spelling or disintegrated surface or to protect the existing
concrete from the attack of aggressive agents. Overlays used for this purpose include concrete or mortar,
bituminous compounds etc. Epoxies should be used to bond the overlays to the existing concrete surface.
14. Give short note on Jacketing.
Jacketing consists of restoring or increasing the section of an existing member by encasing it in a
new concrete. This method is useful for protection of section against further deterioration by providing
additional to in member.
15. Give an account on how metal bonding is done on concrete member.
On the tension side of the beam 2 to 3mm steel plates are to the existing beam to increase its
capacity. The glue or adhesive should compatible with the existing concrete with behavioral
characteristics under load addition to providing integrity with parent member.
16. How clamps are used to overcome low member strength?
The distress is due to inadequate stirrups either due to deficiency in the of provision of C- stamps,
U-clamp fixed externally along the length of beam to provide adequate these will be protected by
covering with rich mortar or concreting as the a later stage.
17. Define grouting.
Grouting can be performed in a similar manner as the injection of an epoxy. However the use of
an epoxy is the better solution except where considerations for the resistance of cold weather prevent
such use in which case grouting is the comparable alternative.
18. What are the causes of dampness in concrete buildings?
 Subsoil moisture rising through foundation beds.
 Rainwater seeping in from external walls.
 Rainwater coming through parapet and compound walls.
 Moisture deposited on building due to condensation.
19. State the uses of fibre optic sensors in concrete structures.
Fiber optic sensors (FOSs) are ideally suited for monitoring strain in concrete structures due to
their small size, low cost, ability to be embedded internally, and multiplexing capabilities.
20. List the methods adopted to overcome low member strength in concrete structures.
 Concrete Jacketing ·
 Ferro cement jacketing
  Section enlargement
 Exterior post tensioning
 Additional interior reinforcement
21. Name any four engineered demolition techniques for RC structures.
 Wrecking Ball Method.
 Pusher Arm technique.
 Thermic Lance Technique.
 Non – Explosive Demolition.
 Concrete Sawing Method.
 Deliberate Collapse Method.
 Pressure Jetting.
 PART-B & C QUESTIONS

UNIT I - MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR STRATEGIES

1. What are the facets of maintenance?

2. Discuss the importance of maintenance and classification of maintenance.

3. Describe about the inspection to be carried out during and after the construction of structure.

4. Explain the step by step procedure to be followed to assess damage structure and to carry out
rehabilitation work.

5. Discuss briefly the various causes of deterioration.

6. With a flowchart explain the procedure for assessing the damages of a distressed structure.

7. Under what circumstance premature deterioration of concrete takes place? Briefly explain.

8. As a site engineer, what are the factors you would check during the day of concreting to assure
quality in construction? Explain in detail.

9. With a graph explain the service life behavior of concrete structures; also explain in details
about time based maintenance.

10. Differentiate between repair and maintenance of building.

11. Discuss the various types of repair strategies for RC buildings.

UNIT II - STRENGTH AND DURABILITY OF CONCRETE

1. Why quality assurance for structure is needed? Explain the components of quality assurance
for building.

2. Explain the factors influencing strength of concrete.

3. Explain the tests for strength of concrete.

4. Explain in detail, the effects on durability and strength of concrete due to

(a) climate and (b) chemicals.

5. Explain in detail about cracking in concrete and also explain types and causes of cracks.

6. Explain in detail, the effects on durability and strength of concrete due to temperature.

7. Explain in detail about the effects of sustained elevated temperature on hardened reinforced
concrete.
8. With chemical equations, explain the mechanism of corrosion. Also discuss the factors
influencing the corrosion.

9. With sketches explain the possible design and constructional errors.

UNIT III - SPECIAL CONCRETES

1. Explain in detail the process of making polymer concrete. Also give its advantages.

2. Write a short notes on the manufacturing process and applications of sulphur infiltrated
concrete (SIFCON).

3. Explain in detail about fiber reinforced concrete with its types.

4. Describe about the High strength concrete with its methods.

5. Explain about high performance concrete.

6. With a neat sketch explain vacuum concreting with its advantages and disadvantages.

7. Explain in detail the process of making self compacting concrete. Also give its advantages and
disadvantages.

8. Explain the composition and properties of geopolymer concrete.

9. Explain in detail about reactive powder concrete with its selection parameters.

10. Describe about the concrete made with industrial waste.

UNIT IV - TECHNIQUES FOR REPAIR AND PROTECTION METHODS

1. Explain non destructive testing techniques in detail with its types.

2. Describe load test for stability in detail.

3. Explain the process of epoxy injection.

4. Briefly explain the shoring and its types.

5. What is meant by underpinning? Describe in detail the various methods available for
underpinning.

6. Explain the various protective coatings for reinforcement.

7. Explain cathodic protection with a neat sketch.

8. Briefly explain about corrosion inhibitors and corrosion resistant steel.

 UNIT V - REPAIR, REHABILITATION AND RETROFITTING OF STRUCTURES

1. Explain strengthening of structural elements in detail.

2. How do you evaluate, repair and rehabilitate a structure distressed due to corrosion?

3. How do you evaluate, repair and rehabilitate a structure distressed due to fire leakage?

4. How do you evaluate, repair and rehabilitate a structure distressed due to earthquake?

5. Briefly explain the transportation of structures from one place to other.

6. Describe about structural health monitoring.

7. Explain demolition techniques with its principles, factors affecting in detail.

8. Briefly explain the engineered demolition methods with neat sketches.

9. With a case study explain the demolition of building.