Class-12th Class Notes Biology

HUMAN REPRODUCTION
Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous. The
reproductive events in humans include formation of gametes
(gametogenesis), i.e., sperms in males and ovum in females.

1. The Male Reproductive System

It consists of –

A. Primary sex organs

A pair of testes suspended in scrotum.

B. Secondary sex organs

A pair of ducts each differentiated into rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens, ejaculatory duct and the associated
glands.

External genitalia
• The testes are situated outside the abdominal cavity in a
pouch called scrotum, which help in maintaining the low
temperature of testes necessary for spermatogenesis.
• Each testes has about 250 testicular lobules and each lobule
contain highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms
are produced. Each seminiferous tubules is lined by two
types of cells, spermatogonia ( male germ cell) and Sertoli
cells.
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Male reproductive system

• Leydig cells or interstitial cells present around the

seminiferous tubules synthesize and secrete androgen
hormone.
• Ejaculatory duct store and transport the sperm from testes
to outside through urethra which originate from urinary
bladder and extend through penis to its external opening
urethral meatus.
• The penis is male external genitalia. The enlarged end of
penis is called the glans penis is covered by a loose fold of
skin called foreskin.
• Male accessary glands include paired seminal vesicles,
prostrate and paired bulbourethral glands. Secretion of
these glands forms the seminal plasma which contains
fructose, calcium and enzymes. The secretion of
bulbourethral glands also helps in lubrication of the penis.
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2. The Female Reproductive System

A. It consists of –
(a) The primary sex organ that is a pair of ovaries
(b) Secondary sex organs- the duct system consisting of a pair
of fallopian tube, a uterus, cervix and vagina
(c) External genitalia
(d) Mammary glands

Ovaries are primary female sex organ that produce the female
gamete and several steroid hormones. Each ovary is covered by
thin epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma, which is
divided into a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.

• Fallopian tube extends from periphery of ovary to the

uterus. The part closer to ovary is a funnel shaped structure
called infundibulum having finger like projection called
fimbriae.
• Infundibulum leads to ampulla and join with uterus with
isthmus. Uterus is pear shaped structure also called womb.
• Uterus open vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of
cervix(cervical canal) along with vagina forms the birth
canal.
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Female reproductive system

The wall of the uterus has three layers of tissue-

1. Perimetrium-External membrane.
2. Myometrium-Middle thick layer of smooth muscles which
exhibit strong contraction during delivery of baby.
3. Endometrium -line the uterine wall and undergo cyclic
changes during menstrual cycle.

B. Female external genitalia includes

• Mons pubis - cushion of fatty tissues covered by skin and
pubic hair.
• Labia majora- fleshy fold that surround the vaginal opening.
• Labia minora - paired fold of tissue under labia majora.
The opening of vagina is often partially covered by a
membrane called hymen. The tiny finger like projection
present at the upper junction of two labia minora above the
urethral opening is called clitoris.
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• Mammary glands are paired structures that contain

glandular tissues and variable fats. Each glandular tissue
contains 15-20 mammary lobes containing alveoli that
secrete milk. Mammary ducts join to form mammary
ampulla.

3. Gametogenesis
The process of formation of male and female gametes in testes
and ovary respectively is called gametogenesis.

lt is of two types:

A. Spermatogenesis in males
B. Oogenesis in females

A. Spermatogenesis
In testes immature, male germ cells (spermatogonia) produce
sperm by spermatogenesis that begins at puberty.

• The spermatogonia present at the inner side of seminiferous

tubules multiply by mitotic division and increase in number.
Each spematogonium contain 46 chromosomes.
• Spermatogonia forms spermatocyte that undergo meiotic
division to reproduce secondary spermatocytes having 23
chromosomes.
• The spermatids are transformed into spermatozoa by the
process called spermiogenesis. The sperm heads remain
embedded in sertoli cells and are released from
seminiferous tubules by the process of spermiation.
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Sectional view of seminiferous tubule

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

• Spermatogenesis initiated due to increase in secretion of
gonadotropin releasing hormone by hypothalamus.
• Increase in GnRH act on anterior pituitary and stimulate
secretion of two gonadotropins, LH and FSH.
• LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates them to secrete
androgens.
• FSH acts on Sertoli cells, stimulates secretion of some factors
which help in spermiogenesis.

Structure of sperm-
Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a
middle piece and a tail. The sperm head contain elongated
haploid nucleus, anterior portion of which is covered by cap like
structure acrosome.
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Structure of human sperm

Human male ejaculates about 200-300 million sperms during a

coitus. The seminal plasma along with the sperms constitutes the
semen. The function of male sex secondary ducts and glands are
maintained by androgen hormones.

(a) Spermatogenesis (b) Oogenesis

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B. Oogenesis
The process of formation of mature female gametes is called
oogenesis. It started during embryonic development stage when
millions of oogonia (gamete mother cells) are formed in each fetal
ovary.

• The gametes mother cells start division and enter into

prophase I of meiotic division and get temporally arrested at
that stage called primary oocytes.

Sectional view of ovary

• Each primary oocyte get surrounded by a layer of granulosa

cell than it is called the primary follicle.
• At puberty, about 60,000- 80,000 primary follicles are left in
each ovary.
• Primary follicle gets surrounded by more layers of granulosa
cells called secondary follicle that transform into tertiary
follicle that contain fluid filled cavity called antrum.
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• The tertiary follicles further changes into the mature follicle

called Graafian follicle, which rapture to release secondary
oocytes (ovum) from the ovary by the process of ovulation.

4. Menstrual cycle
The reproductive cycles in female primates is called menstrual
cycle. It start at puberty and is called menarche.

Phases of Menstrual Cycle-

The menstrual cycle consists of following four phases:

1. Menstrual Phase
2. Follicular Phase
3. Ovulatory Phase
4. Luteal Phase

Events during menstrual cycle

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Hormonal Control of MC-

1. FSH stimulates the ovarian follicles to produce estrogens.
2. LH stimulates corpus luteum to secrete progesterone.
3. Menstrual phase is caused by the increased production of
estrogens.
4. LH causes ovulation.
5. Proliferative phase is caused by the increased production of
estrogens.
6. Secretory phase is caused by increased production of
progesterone.

5. Fertilisation and Implantation

The process of fusion of sperm with ovum is called fertilisation.

The mitotic division starts as the zygote moves through the

isthmus of the oviduct called cleavage towards the uterus and
forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres. The embryo
with 8 to 16 blastomeres is called a morula. The morula continues
to divide and transforms into blastocyst as it moves further into
the uterus.

Ovum surrounded by sperms

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After attachment, the uterine cells divide rapidly and covers the
blastocyst. As a result the blastocyst becomes embedded in the
endometrium of the uterus and it leads to pregnancy. This is
called implantation.

Passage of growing embryo through fallopian tube

6. Pregnancy and embryonic

development
In human beings, after one month of pregnancy, the embryo's
heart is formed. The first sign of growing foetus may be noticed
by listening to the heart sound carefully through the stethoscope.
By the end of the second month of pregnancy, the foetus
develops limbs and digits. By the end of 12 weeks (first trimester),
most of the major organ systems are formed, for example, the
limbs and external genital organs are well- developed. The first
movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are
usually observed during the fifth month. By the end of about 24
weeks (end of second trimester), the body is covered with fine
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hair, eye-lids separate, and eyelashes are formed. By the end of

nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is
ready for delivery.

7. Parturition And Lactation

The average duration of human pregnancy is about 9 months
which is called the gestation period. Vigorous contraction of the
uterus at the end of pregnancy causes expulsion/delivery of the
foetus. This process of delivery of the foetus (childbirth) is called
parturition.

The mammary glands of the female undergo differentiation

during

pregnancy and starts producing milk towards the end of

pregnancy by the process called lactation.