INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL

UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY
OFOF
ALGIERS
ALGIERS
- FACULTY
- FACULTY
OFOF
MEDICINE
MEDICINE
ALGIERS/TIPAZA
ALGIERS/TIPAZA
//MEDEA/TAMANRASSET/DJELFA
//MEDEA/TAMANRASSET/DJELFA
- - -DEPARTMENT
- DEPARTMENT
OFOF
MEDICINE.
MEDICINE.
FIRST
FIRST
YEAR
YEAR
OFOF
MEDICINE
MEDICINE
ACADEMIC
ACADEMIC
YEAR
YEAR
2025/2026
2025/2026
CYTOLOGY
CYTOLOGY
MODULE.
MODULE.
PRPR
YAHIA
YAHIA
Learning Objectives

At the end of this course, students should be able to:

• Define what a cell is and understand its fundamental role.

• Distinguish between the different cell types (prokaryotes vs.

eukaryotes).

• Identify the main cellular structures and their functions.

• Understand the basics of cell theory.

Objectifs pédagogiques

• À la fin de ce cours, les étudiants devraient être capables de :

• Définir ce qu’est une cellule et comprendre son rôle fondamental.

• Distinguer les différents types de cellules (procaryotes et eucaryotes).

• Identifier les principales structures cellulaires et leurs fonctions.

• Comprendre les bases de la théorie cellulaire.

INTRODUCTION TO THE CELL PART ONE

I. WHAT IS A CELL?
II. WHAT IS CYTOLOGY?
III. HISTORY OF CELL DISCOVERY
IV. THE CELL THEORY
V. TYPES OF CELLS: PROKARYOTES VS. EUKARYOTES
[Link] EUKARYOTIC CELL
I. What is a Cell?

• Definition:
• A cell is the smallest unit of life that can carry out all life
processes. It is the structural, functional, and biological unit of all
living organisms = meaning that a cell is an autonomous entity
capable of performing a certain number of functions necessary
and sufficient for its life.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS:

• Bounded by a membrane (plasma membrane)

• Contains genetic material (DNA)
• Has cytoplasm and cellular machinery for metabolism
• Capable of reproduction (independent or as part of multicellular
organism)
• Cellular individuality is achieved through the plasma membrane,
which regulates the exchanges between the cell and its
environment.
• The cell is also the smallest portion of living matter that can live
in isolation and reproduce.

• It synthesizes all of its components using elements from the

extracellular environment.
II. What is cytology?

• It is the study of the constituents of the cell, their functions, and their
relationships with each other.
CELL BIOLOGY = CYTOLOGY

• From cell theory was born cell biology: a discipline of biology:

structure and physiology
• Studies cells and their organelles,

• Morphological study of cells

• Functional study:
Reproduction
Metabolism
Homeosatsis
Communication
Survival and Death
Applications

• Scientific research / pathologies / treatments

• molecular biology: study of molecules supporting the

hereditary message (DNA RNA nucleic acids )

• Biotechnology: application of science and technology

to living organisms
METHODOLOGY
How to approach this subject?
• A lot of knowledge to learn
• The cell is a complex global structure, and it is very
important to first understand what its components are
used for and how they organize themselves to store
knowledge.
• Understanding = Learning intelligently is easier and
much more profitable
III. History of Cell Discovery
III. History of Cell Discovery
IV. The Cell Theory

Formulated in the 19th century, the cell theory consists of three major
principles:
• All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
✅ Modern Additions:
• Energy flow occurs within cells.
• Hereditary information (DNA) is passed from cell to cell.
• All cells have the same basic chemical composition.
Observation Methods: 2 Main Ways to Study the
Cell

• Morphological study: we want to take a "photo" of the

cell, to see what its constituents look like.

• Chemical study: we want to know the chemical nature of

the cell's constituents (cytochemistry and
histochemistry)

• Both can use the same microscopes (optical, electronic,

etc.) but with different preparations and techniques.
Observation Methods

• Optical Microscopy

• Electron Microscopy
Use of accelerated electrons that pass through the preparation
differently depending on the thickness of the structures.
[Link] TYPE

• THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

• THE PROKARYOTIC CELL (bacteria)
• THE ACARYOTIC CELL (viruses)
 Being unicellular Being multicellular

•a cell, • several interdependent cells.

• vital functions (feeding, • Each of them (same genetic
proliferation, etc.). material ) specializes and
differentiates ,
• Autonomous ,
• forming tissues, organs
• dependent on other cells • and systems that perform the
• So there can be cellular functions necessary for the life of
interdependence, even for the organism
unicellular beings.
Being unicellular Being multicellular
 Classification of living beings

Unicellular Multicellular organisms

organisms

Prokaryotic Eukaryotic Eukaryotic

cells cells cells

Bacteria Amoeba Animals

sParamecia Plants

Yeasts mushrooms
 TWO FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT LARGE GROUPS

Prokaryotes
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Eukaryotes
• single-celled living beings • a complex organization
• cell structure does not have a • numerous organelles.
nucleus. • The genetic material is enclosed
• Genetic material consisting of a in a nucleus surrounded by a
single circular double-stranded DNA nuclear envelope .
molecule, • They constitute a very large
• free in the hyaloplasm group of organisms, unicellular or
• It lacks a membrane that would multicellular.
separate it from the surrounding
cytoplasm.
Prokaryotes very rarely have
organelles.
 VI/THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

1/INTRODUCTION
• Eukaryotic cells: fungi, animals, and plants.
• Their metabolism is aerobic.
• unicellular (e.g. yeasts) or multicellular (e.g.
mammals).
• All eukaryotic cells have two compartments:
The nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• They are separated from the extracellular environment
by the plasma membrane.
• The nucleus characterizes the eukaryotic kingdom.
 THE EUKARYOTIC CELL

APPEARANCE OF A CELL UNDER OPTICAL APPEARANCE OF A CELL IN ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

MICROSCOPY
A/Shapes:

Rounded
(fat cells)

Elongated
(Muscle cells)

Polygonal (nerve
cells) Prismatic / cylindrical
(intestinal cells)
 B/Arrangement : Tissue-
associated cells

Free cells
 C/Overview of the ultrastructure of the eukaryotic
cell

3D representation

Cytoskeleto
n

Definition : A eukaryotic cell has a true nucleus ; the

genetic material is surrounded by a nuclear envelope . In
addition, it includes numerous organelles limited by a
membrane. and a cytoskeleton
2/Compartmentalization of the eukaryotic
cell

• A/The plasma membrane

• B/The cytoplasm
• C/The eukaryotic nucleus
 A/ The plasma membrane
• The membrane separating
the cytoplasm of the cell
from surrounding structures
• it has highly selective
permeability properties so
that the entry and exit of
compounds are regulated.
• The cellular metabolism is
in turn influenced and
probably regulated by the
membrane.
 The trilaminar structure of membranes is
produced by the arrangement of lipid molecule
(predominantly phospholipids)
• It constitute the basic framework
of the membrane.
• Each phospholipid molecule
consists of an enlarged head in
which the phosphate portion is
located;
• and of two thin tails
• The head end is called the polar
end
• The tail end is the non-polar end.
• Proteins are embedded in phospholipid
bilayer .
• Phospholipids have
 a hydrophilic head (soluble in water )
 and two hydrophobic tails (insoluble in
water)
 forming a fluid double layer.
• Membrane proteins perform functions
such as transport, recognition, and
signaling.
• Cholesterol is also present to stabilize
the membrane.

.
Some varieties of membrane proteins (Schematic
representation)
Main Functions

• Selective barrier: controls what enters and leaves the cell

(nutrients, ions, waste).
• Communication: contains receptors that receive signals
(hormones, neurotransmitters).
• Recognition: allows the cell to identify itself (e.g., immune
system).
• Adhesion: helps the cell attach to other cells or to the
extracellular matrix.
DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS THAT WE HAVE TO
STYDY THIS YEAR:

• Role of Cell Membrane in Transport of Material into or out of the Cell

• Classification of Cell Contacts/ CELLULAR ADHESION : At such sites
adjoining cell membranes are held together by some glycoprotein
molecules, present in the cell membrane, called as cell adhesion
molecules (CAMs).
• Specialised Junctional Structures and Communicating Junctions (Gap
Junctions)
• Intercellular communication occurs via membrane receptors that bind
to specific ligands, allowing cells to detect and respond to signals from
their environment or other cells
 B/ The cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm of a typical cell contains
various structures that are referred to as
organelles.
• They include the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER), ribosomes, mitochondria, the Golgi
complex and various types of vesicles
• The cytosol also contains a cytoskeleton
made up of microtubules, microfilaments
and intermediate filaments. AND
Centrioles are closely connected with
microtubules.
3D STRUCTURE
The cell organelles can be membrane bound or without
membrane
C/The cytosol

• The cytosol is a kind of gel in which cellular organelles bathe,

• cytoskeleton, free ribosomes and several types of unbounded
inclusions by a membrane (lipids, glycogen).
• Many biochemical reactions take place in the cytosol (e.g.
glycolysis).
• Note: Cytoplasm = cytosol + organelles, cytoskeleton, ribosomes
and
• inclusions
D/The endomembrane system
• set of intercommunicating membrane
compartments
• the constituents of their membrane and
the soluble molecules in their lumen (=
cavity) can pass from one compartment
to another by membrane flow
phenomena.
• communicate with each other through
vesicles.
• We distinguish
 endoplasmic reticulum,
the Golgi apparatus,
endosomes, lysosomes,
vesicles
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: the ER is generally
classified into rough (granular) and smooth
(agranular) varieties

• The rough appearance of rough ER is due to ribosomes attached to

cytoplasmic side of membrane which play an important role in protein
synthesis.
• The lumen of rough ER is continuous with the perinuclear space
(between the inner and outer nuclear membranes).
• Smooth ER is responsible for further processing of proteins synthesised in
rough ER.
• It is also responsible for synthesis of lipids, specially that of membrane
phospholipids (necessary for membrane formation).
• Ribosomes and enzymes are present on the ‘outer’ surfaces of the
membranes of the reticulum
E/Golgi Complex (Golgi Apparatus)

• The Golgi complex is a membrane-bound organelle found in most

eukaryotic cells. It functions as the cell’s “post office,” responsible for:
• Modifying proteins and lipids received from the endoplasmic reticulum
• Sorting and packaging these molecules into vesicles
• Transporting them to their correct destinations inside or outside the cell
• It consists of stacked, flattened sacs called cisternae, and plays a key
role in processes like glycosylation (adding sugars to proteins) and
secretion
 F/Mitochondria

• Mitochondria are small organelles found in

most eukaryotic cells.
• They are often called the "powerhouses of
the cell" because they produce energy in the
form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
through a process called cellular respiration.
• Mitochondria have their own DNA and are
thought to have originated from ancient
bacteria through a process called
endosymbiosisThey also play a major role in
programmed cell death or apoptosis.
G/Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles that play a

key role in the breakdown of fatty acids and the detoxification of
harmful substances, such as hydrogen peroxide. They contain
enzymes like catalase and oxidases to carry out these oxidative
reactions safely.
 H/The cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton is a
network of protein
filaments that
maintains the shape of
the cell and the
arrangement of its
organelles in the
cytoplasm.
• It is also responsible
for cellular movements
and intracellular
trafficking.
 The elements that constitute the cytoskeleton
consist of the following:
• Microfilaments
• Microtubules
• Intermediate filaments
Microfilaments
• Microfilaments are thin, actin-based structures
formed by the polymerization of globular actin
into filamentous actin
• ((G-actin)  F-actin).
• They create a dynamic meshwork beneath the
cell membrane, stabilized by the protein
filamin.
• maintains cell shape and allows flexibility,
• Microfilaments also support surface structures
like microvilli and other cellular protrusions by
forming internal bundles.
 Microtubules

• Microtubules are cylindrical structures (~25 nm in

diameter)
• composed of tubulin protein subunits (α and β).
• These subunits form chains called
protofilaments,
• and 13 protofilaments align longitudinally to build
the microtubule wall.
• They are stabilized by microtubule-associated
proteins (MAPs) and originate from centrioles,
which act as organizing centers.
Functions of microtubules:

• Provide structural support as part of the cytoskeleton.

• Prevent collapse of endoplasmic reticulum tubules.
• Enable intracellular transport via motor proteins like dynein and
kinesin, especially in axons.
• Form the mitotic spindle during cell division.
• Compose the internal structure of cilia.
 Intermediate Filaments

• Intermediate filaments are cytoskeletal

components
• Their protein composition varies by cell type
• examples include :
cytokeratin (epithelial cells),
desmin (muscle),
 neurofilament proteins (neurons),
GFAP (astrocytes),
laminin (nuclear lamina),
and vimentin (many cell types).
Functions of intermediate filaments:

• Provide mechanical strength and structural integrity.

• Link cells via desmosomes and anchor them to the extracellular
matrix via hemidesmosomes.
• Form keratin in skin epithelium, and are the main components of
hair and nails.
• Maintain axonal shape in neurons through neurofilaments.
• Compose the nuclear lamina, supporting the nuclear envelope
 I/Centrioles

• Centrioles are cylindrical structures found in cells capable

of division, typically arranged in pairs at right angles within
a dense region called the centrosome.
• Under electron microscopy, each centriole is composed of
nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a circular
pattern.
• Functions of centrioles:
• Act as microtubule-organizing centers.
• Play a key role in forming the mitotic spindle during cell
division.
• Contribute to the structure of cilia, flagella, and
specialized projections like the axial filaments of
spermatozoa, all of which share the characteristic 9 + 2
microtubule configuration.
 J/ The eukaryotic nucleus
• The eukaryotic nucleus is a
compartment delimited by the
nuclear envelope,
• pierced by nuclear pores which allow
exchanges between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm (nucleocytoplasmic
exchanges).
• The nucleus contains DNA (
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid ),
• fragmented into chromosomes and in
which genetic information is stored.