Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education-Region III

Schools Division of Olongapo City-District IIB

Mabayuan Senior High School

Grade XII

MICHAELA C. MADAMECILA

JACQUELINE JOY A.
LISING SHS T-III SHS T-III

MARIA DOLORES D. JARNAGIN

SHS MT-1

Introduction to Quantitative Research

Quarter 2 Week 1-3
Most Essential Learning Competencies
1. Chooses appropriate quantitative research
design. 2. Describe sampling procedure and sample.
3. Constructs an instrument and establishes it validity and
reliability
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Diagnostic Test. Let us know WHAT YOU KNOW!
Direction: Choose the term or concept being referred. Write your answer on the space provided
below.
1. It is an overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study in a
logical manner.
a. Research Problem c. Research Design
b. Research Question d. Research Paper
2. This research design is used to gather information on current situations and conditions. It
helps provide answers to the question of who, what, when, where and the how of a
particular research study.
a. Exploratory Research Design c. Causal Research Design b. Descriptive Research
Design d. Quantitative Research Design 3. This research design is often used to establish
an initial understanding and background information about a research study of interest,
often with very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.
a. Exploratory Research Design c. Causal Research Design b. Descriptive Research
Design d. Quantitative Research Design 4. This research design is used to measure the
impact that an independent variable and dependent variable or why certain results are
obtained.
a. Exploratory Research Design c. Causal Research Design b. Descriptive Research
Design d. Quantitative Research Design 5. It is a kind of descriptive research design used in
securing opinions and trends through the use of questionnaires and interviews.
a. Correlation Research Design c. Evaluation Research Design b. Survey Research
Design d. Exploratory Research Design 6. It is a selection of respondents for a research
study to represent the total population (N). a. Mean c. sample
b. Sample size d. element
7. It consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in studying the members
of a group that usually have common or similar characteristics.
a. Population c. element
b. Sample d. census
8. A kind of non-probability sampling procedure, sometimes called judgmental or subjective
sampling employs a procedure in which samples are chosen for a special purpose. a.
Simple random sampling c. Snowball sampling
b. Stratified random sampling d. Purposive sampling
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9. It is a very popular rating scale used by researchers to measure behavior and attitudes
quantitatively.
a. ANOVA c. Rank-order scale
b. Likert Scale d. all of the above
10. It indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring instrument (Norland, 1990). It
 refers to a condition where measurement process yields consistent responses over
repeated measurement.
a. Reliability c. Content Validity
b. Face Validity d. Criterion-related validity

LESSON 1: CHOOSING APPROPRIATE QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

To start writing a research paper, you have to plan the research design of your study. The
research design is your overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study
in a logical manner. Additionally, the design ensures that the research problem and questions
shall determine the type of research design you should use.
The choice of a correct research design is important prior to obtaining information relevant to
your research study. You can review and synthesize literature of studies that have used the same
research design and which are relevant to your research study.
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
A. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
➢ It is often used to establish an initial understanding and background information about
a research study interest, oftenly with very few or no earlier related studies found
relevant to the research study.
➢ This research design is described as an informal or unstructured way of investigating
available sources. You may conduct library research, secondary data analysis,
experience surveys, opinionnaire, case analysis, focus groups, projective techniques
and internet searches.
B. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
➢ It is used to gather information on current situations and conditions. It helps provide
answers to the questions of who, what, when, where and the how of a particular research
study. Descriptive research studies provide accurate data after subjecting them to a
rigorous procedure and using large amounts of data from large number of samples. This
design leads to a logical conclusions and pertinent recommendations. However, the
descriptive design is dependent to a high degree on data collection instrumentation for
the measurement of data and analysis.
According to Polit and Hungles (1999), the following research designs are classified
as descriptive design:
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1. Survey. The survey research design is usually used in securing opinions and trends
through the use of questionnaires and interviews. A survey is used in gathering data
from institutions, government and businesses to help in decision-making regarding
change strategies, improving practices, analyzing views on choice of products or
market research. Surveys can be conducted face-to-face or online. Online surveys
 are widely used because gathering data from the target respondents or completing of
questionnaires is fast using the internet.
2. Correlation Research. It is used for research studies aimed to determine the
existence of a relationship between two or more variables and to determine the degree
of the relationship. Examples of correlational research involving two 2. Quantitative
variables that can be correlated are: mental ability and grade in Math; gender and Math
performance; advertising cost and sales; and income and expenses.
3. Evaluation Research. It is conducted to elicit useful feedback from a variety of
respondents from various fields to aid in decision making or policy formulation. o
Commonly used types of evaluation based on the purpose of the study are Formative
and Summative evaluation.
3.1 Formative evaluation is used to determine the quality of implementation of a
project, the efficiency and effectiveness of a program, assessment of
organizational processes such as procedures, policies, guidelines, human
resource development and the like.
Examples:
▪ Needs Assessment – evaluates the need for the program or project. ▪
Process Evaluation – evaluates the process of implementation of a program ▪
Implementation Evaluation – evaluates the efficiency or effectiveness of a
project or program
▪ Program Monitoring – evaluates the performance and implementation of an
unfinished program.
3.2 Summative evaluation is done after the implementation of the program. It
examines the outcomes, products or effects of the program.
Examples:
▪ Secondary Data Analysis – you may examine existing data for analysis. ▪
Impact Evaluation - this is used to evaluate the overall effect of the program in
its entirety
▪ Outcome Evaluation – this is done to determine if the program has caused
useful effects based on this target outcomes.
4. Cost-effectiveness Evaluation or cost-benefit analysis, it compares the relate
costs to the outcomes or results of some courses of action. For example, you may
conduct a study on the value for money returns of a company brought about by an
intensive training investment for employees in the sales department.
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C. CAUSAL RESEARCH DESIGN
➢ It is used to measure the impact that an independent variable (causing effect) has on
another variable (being affected) or why certain results are obtained. A valid conclusion
may be derived when an association between the independent variable and the
dependent variable is obtained. It can also be used to identify the extent and the nature
of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can help businesses determine how
 decisions may affect operations.

LESSON 2: DESCRIBING SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

Determining the correct sample size and how the samples are selected are crucial in
ensuring the accuracy and precision of an estimate leading to valid research findings. Sampling
is securing some of the elements of a population. An element is a member of a population who
can provide information for the population. A population consists of the total elements about
which you can make inferences based on the data gathered from a determined sample size.
SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
A sample (n) is a selectionof respondents for a research study to represent the total
population (N). Making a decision about sample size for a survey is important. Too large a sample
may mean a waste of resources, both human and financial. On the other hand, too small a sample
decreases the utilization of the results.
1. A sample saves time compare to doing a complete census which requires more time. 2. A
sample saves money because it is less costly than conducting a complete census. 3. A
sample allows more particular attention to be given to a number of elements than when
doing a census.
4. There is a greater error in reporting results of a census caused by inexperienced
interviewers. There is less sampling error in a survey.
5. Some research studies in the industry may only be performed on a sample of items. For
example, testing the length of time a battery will last.

SLOVIN’S FORMULA IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

The following information is needed to be able to determine the sample size using the
Slovin’s formula.
• Population (N) consists of members of a group that a researcher is interested in studying
the members of a group that usually have common or similar characteristics. • Margin of
error is the allowable error margin in research. A confidence interval of 95% gives a
margin of error of 5%; a 98% gives a margin of error of 2%; a 99% confidence interval
gives a 1% margin of error.

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• The sample size can be obtained by the formula:

�� =��
1 + ����2
Where:
n = sample size
N = total population
 e = margin of error

SAMPLE PROCEDURES
Sampling is a formal process of choosing the correct subgroup called a sample from a
population to participate in research study. The subgroup shall be the representative of the large
group from where they selected. To create a sample, you may follow any of the following
categories of sampling techniques: probability sampling and non probability sampling schemes.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES
The most important characteristics of probability sampling procedure is the random
selection of the samples. Specifically, each sample (n) or element from the population (N) has an
equal chance of selection under a given sampling technique. Four probability sampling
procedures are described below:

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1. Simple Random Sampling
➢ This is the most frequently used type of probability sampling technique. This is
characterized by the idea that the chance of selection is the same for every member of
population.
2. Systematic Random Sampling
➢ It follows specific steps and procedures in doing the random selection of the samples. It
requires a list of the elements and every nth element in the list is drawn for inclusion in the
 sample.
3. Stratified Random Sampling
➢ In this type of probability sampling procedure, the population is first divided into two or
more mutually exclusive categories based on your variables of interest in the research
study. The population is organized into homogeneous subsets before drawing the
samples. With stratifies random sampling, the population is divided into subpopulation
called strata.
4. Cluster Sampling
➢ It is used when the target respondents in research is spread across geographical location.
In this method, the population is divided into groups called clusters which are
heterogeneous in nature and are mutually exclusive. A random sampling technique is
used on relevant clusters to be included in the study. This may classified as:
a. Single-stage cluster sampling – all members of each of the selected clusters are
used in the sampling process
b. Two-stage cluster sampling – a subset of elements within each selected cluster
is randomly selected for inclusion in the sample.
c. Multi-stage sampling – more than two steps are taken in selecting clusters.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING PROCEDURES

There are situations when the researcher cannot employ random selection. In
cases where the probability sampling is not applicable, you may consider some non-probability
sampling alternatives.
a. Convenience Sampling
➢ This is a method a selecting samples that are available and are capable of participating
in a research study on a current issue. This method is sometimes called haphazard or
availability sampling.
b. Snowball Sampling
➢ It is a technique where the researcher identifies a key informant about a research of
interest and then ask the respondent to refer or identity another respondent who can
participate in the study. The identification of the samples follows a multiplier effect, that
is, one person is asked to refer the researcher to another respondent and so on.

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c. Purposive Sampling
➢ It is also called the judgemental or subjective sampling employs a procedure in which
samples are chosen for a special purpose. It may involve members of a limited group of
population.
d. Quota Sampling
➢ It is gathering representative sample from a group based on certain characteristics of
the population chosen by the researcher. Usually, the population is divided into specific
 groups. If the specific condition for example, is both for genders, males and females are
to be represented equally in the sample group, then if 60 representatives are needed,
then you get 30 males and 30 females from each group.
➢ The main difference between stratified random sampling and quota sampling can be
explained in a way that in quota sampling, you use non-random selection.

LESSON 3: DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND ESTABLISHING VALIDITY

AND RELIABILITY
In everyday life, you measure several features of objects and variables of interest in
research using measurement [Link] may be easy to determine personality attributtes, such as
gender, weight, height, grade level but in actual practice the procedure and requirements are
more formal and rigorous. Using appropriate tools, research measurement is more intricate and
complicated.
DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE
QUESTIONNAIRE
➢ Instrument for collecting data. It consist of a series of questions that respondents provide
answers to a research study. A step-by-step approach is discussed in this section with the
hope that you, the researcher will produce a valid and reiable instrument for gathering data.
Step 1: Background
You do a basic research on the background of the chosen variable or construct. Choose
a construct that you can use to craft the purpose and objective of the questionnaire. In
research, the term construct refers to a trait or characteristic that you like to evaluate or
measure. Some examples of construct are weight, height, intellligence levels, levels of
satisfaction, aggression, skills, academic achievement, or work performance. After
identifying the construct, you can easily state the purpose and objective of the questionnaire
and the research questions as well; only then you can frame the hypothesis of the study.
Five main types of variables:
➢ Dependent Variables
➢ Independent Variables
➢ Control Variables
➢ Continuous Variables
➢ Discrete Variables
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Step 2: Questionnaire Conceptualization
Choose the response scale to use. This is how you want your respondents to answer the
questions in your study. You can choose from the following response scales.
➢ Yes/No
➢ Yes/No/ Don’t Know
 -This type of scale allows respondent to select only one answer. The “don’t know”
answer is the neutral response.
➢ Likert Scale. This is a very popular rating scale used by researchers to measure
behaviours and attitudes quantitatively. It consist of choices that range from one
extreme to another from where respondents choose a degree of their opinions. It is
the best tool for measuring the level of opinions.
Frequency Occurrence Frequency Use
Very frequently Always
Frequently Often
Occasionally Sometimes
Rarely Rarely
Very Rarely Never

➢ Generate the items or questions of the questionnaire based on the purpose and
objectives of the research study.
Once you have decided on the construct and the response scale you will use, you
may develop the questions for your questionnaire using the following guidelines in
mind. o The questions should be clear, concise and simple using minimum number
of words. Avoid lengthy and confusing lay-out.
o Classify questions under each statement based on your problem statement.
o Questions should be consistent within the needs of the study.
o Avoid sensitive and more debatable question.

➢ Choose the type of questions in developing the statements. The type of questions may
be one of the following:
Dichotomous question – This is a “Yes/No” or “Like/Dislike” question where only two
choices are provided.
Open-ended question – This type of question usually answers the question “why”. It
allows the respondents to give their ideas and insights on a particular issue. This type of
question gives additional challenge to the researcher who must review each response
before assigning challenge to the researcher who must review each response before
assigning codes and analyzing data.
Ex. What are your favorite movies?
What do you like most about your school?
Closed Questions – There are also called multiple-choice questions. These may consist
of three or more mutually exclusive questions with different categories.
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 Ex. How often do you watched TV at home?
Never - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1
1 or 2 times a week - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2
3 or 4 times a week - - - - - - - - - - - - - 3
Nearly everday - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4
Rank-order scale questions
➢ Respondents are asked to rank their choices on each statement or item ➢ Ranking
requires that a set of items be ranked in order to compare each item to all others.
Step 3. ESTABLISH THE VALIDITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Validity – traditionally defined as “degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports,
to be measuring (Brown 1996)
A questionnaire undergoes a validation procedure to make sure that it accurately
measures what it aims to do. A valid questionnaire helps to collect reliable and accurate data.
Here are ways to assess the validity of a set of measurements:
1. Face Validity – This is a superficial or subjective assessment. The questionnaire appears
to measure the construct or variable that the research study is supposed to measure. 2.
Content Validity – It is most often measured by experts or people who are familiar with the
construct being measured.
3. Criterion-related validity – This type of validity measures the relationship between a
measure and an outcome. Criterion-related validity can be further divided into concurrent
and predictive validity.
Concurrent Validity – It measures how well the results of an evaluation or assessment
correlate with other assessments measuring the same variable or constructs. Predictive
Validity – This measures how well the results of an assessment can predict a
relationship between the construct being measured and future behaviour.
4. Construct Validity – This is concerned with the extend to which a measure is related to
other measures as specified in a theory or previous research. It is an experimental
demonstration that a test is measuring the construct it claims to be measuring.
Step 4: ESTABLISH THE RELIABILITY OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Reliability indicates the accuracy or precision of the measuring instrument (Norland,
1990). It refers to a condition where measurement process yields consistent responses over
repeated measurements. To apply this concept in research, you need a questionnaire that is
reliable. You need questions that yield consistent scores when asked repeatedly.
Here are some ways to assess reliability of a questionnaire:

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1. Test-retest reliability – This is the simplest method of assessing reliability. The same test
 or questionnaire is administered twice and correlation between the two sets of scores is
computed.
2. Split-half method – This method is also called equivalent or parallel forms. In this method,
two different test covering the same topics are used and the correlation between the two
sets of scores is calculated.
3. Internal consistency – This method is used in assessing reliability of questions measured
in an interval or ratio scale. The reliability estimate is based on a single form of test
administered on a single occasion. One popular formula to measure internal consistency
is called Cronbach’s alpha.
Step 5. PILOT TESTING OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE
Pre-testing or pilot testing a questionnaire is important before you use it to collect data.
Through this process, you can identify questions or statement which are not clear to the
participants or there might be some problems with relevance of the questionnaire to the currect
study.
After designing the questionnaire, you may find 10-15 people from your target group to
pre-test the questionnaire. You design or provide spaces where the testers can freely indicate
their remarks. Such remarks mamy be any of the following:
➢ “Delete this statement. I don’t understand the question/statement.”
➢ “Revise the question/statement. Indicate the specific variables to be
measured”. ➢ “Retain the question/[Link] is good.
Step 6. REVISE THE QUESTIONNAIRE
After identifying the problem areas in your questionnaire, revise the instrument as needed
based on the feedback provided during the pre-tesing or [Link] best question is one
that is edited and refined towards producing clear questions arranged logically and in sequential
order. The questionnaire should match with the research objectives.

ACTIVITY #1
Determine the research design most appropriate for the following research problems. Write your
answers on the space provided. Use the following letters/codes for each of the following research
designs: A - Exploratory research design;
B - Descriptive research design; and
C - Causal research design.
1. A description of how parents feel about the K to 12 program implementation.
2. The effect of different amounts of fertilizer on the growth of plants.
3. The relationship between a student’s math aptitude test and grade in General
Mathematics. 4. The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of working students.
5. What are the key/ success factors in setting up a small business?
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6. What are the causes of drop-out in school?
 7. Is there a correlation between teacher factor and scholastic achievement of students?
8. What are the best qualities of a good student leader?
9. How do personal values and interests relate to the work and lifestyle you may choose? 10.
Is there a relationship between the different home factors and the academic achievement of a
student?

ACTIVITY # 2 On Sample Size and Sampling Technique

A. Given a population (N) of 10,000 complete the table below using Slovin’s formula. Note:
You can make use of Slovins’s online calculator to check if your answer is correct.
([Link]

Estimate of error (e) Sample Size (n)

1%

3%

4%

5%

6%

ACTIVITY#3 On Questionnaire Design: Its Validity and Reliability

Identify the independent variable and dependent variable in each of the following: 1.
Relationship between gender and preference for Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) use
Independent ___________________________________________
Dependent ____________________________________________
2. Effects of cigarrette smoking on the human body
Independent _____________________________________________
Dependent ______________________________________________
3. Relationship between emotional stability and physical well-being.
Independent _____________________________________________
Dependent ______________________________________________
4. Influence of online social networks on the academic performance of students
Independent ________________________________________________
Dependent _________________________________________________
5. Social, personal and political factors related to high school drop-out rates.
 Independent ________________________________________________
Dependent _________________________________________________

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References:
Nelia G. Prieto, PhD Practical Research 2 for Senior High School
[Link]
techniques [Link]
calculator/)

POST TEST
Read the questions carefully. Write the letter that corresponds to your answer on the
space provided.
1. It is a selection of respondents for a research study to represent the total population (N). A.
Mean B. Sample size C. Sample D. element 2. It consists of members of a group that a
researcher is interested in studying the members of a group that usually have common or
similar characteristics.
A. Population B. Sample C. Census D. element 3. A kind of non-probability sampling
procedure, sometimes called judgmental or subjective sampling employs a procedure in which
samples are chosen for a special purpose. A. Simple random sampling C. Snowball sampling
B. Stratified random sampling D. Purposive sampling
4. It is a very popular rating scale used by researchers to measure behavior and attitudes
quantitatively.
A. ANOVA B. Likert Scale C. Rank-order scale D. all of the above 5. It indicates the
accuracy or precision of the measuring instrument (Norland, 1990). It refers to a condition
where measurement process yields consistent responses over repeated measurement.
A. Reliability C. Rank-order scale
B. Face Validity D. Criterion-related validity
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6. It is an overall concept or strategy to put together the components of your study in a logical
manner.
A. Research Problem B. Research Question C. Research Design D. Research Paper 7. This
research design is used to gather information on current situations and conditions. It helps
provide answers to the question of who, what, when, where and the how of a particular research
study.
A. Exploratory Research Design C. Causal Research Design B. Descriptive Research
Design D. Quantitative Research Design 8. This research design is often used to establish an
initial understanding and background information about a research study of interest, often with
very few or no earlier related studies found relevant to the research study.
A. Exploratory Research Design C. Causal Research Design B. Descriptive Research
Design D. Quantitative Research Design 9. This research design is used to measure the impact
that an independent variable and dependent variable or why certain results are obtained.
A. Exploratory Research Design C. Causal Research Design B. Descriptive Research
Design D. Quantitative Research Design 10. It is a kind of descriptive research design used in
securing opinions and trends through the use of questionnaires and interviews.
A. Exploratory Research Design C. Causal Research Design B. Descriptive
Research Design D. Quantitative Research Design

Research Writing Activities

(Individual, peer, or group research)
Directions: Using what we have learned in our previous
lessons, write a draft of the following sections of your
research paper. Do not forget to include the sources in
your in- text citations so as to avoid plagiarism. Drafts
will be returned with remarks for revisions.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides a presentation and description of the research
methodology, respondents of the study, construction and validation of the
instruments, data gathering and treatment of data.
Research Writing Activity 1 (refer to lesson 1)
Research Method/ Design
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Research Writing Activity 2(refer to lesson 2)
Population/ Respondents
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Research Writing Activity 3 (refer to lesson 3)
Research Instrument
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Research Writing Activity 4 (refer to lesson 4)
Validation of Instrument (refer to lesson 3)
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Prepared and
submitted by:

Maria Dolores de
Leon- Jarnagin Michaela C. Madamecila Jacqueline Joy A. Lising Master Teacher 1
Teacher III Teacher III

Approved:

Mercedita Fernandez
Principal II

Parent’s/guardian’s signature over printed name

Date signed: ________________

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