This chapter explores how various components of the environment interact within
ecosystems, the flow of energy through these systems, and the significant impact of
human activities on the environment, focusing on ozone depletion and waste
management.
13.1 Eco-System — What Are Its Components?
• An ecosystem is formed by all interacting organisms in an area together with the
non-living constituents of the environment.
◦ Biotic components: Living organisms (plants, animals, microorganisms,
humans).
◦ Abiotic components: Physical factors (temperature, rainfall, wind, soil,
minerals).
• Examples of Ecosystems:
◦ Natural: Forests, ponds, lakes.
◦ Human-made Artificial): Gardens, crop-fields, aquariums.
• Organisms Grouped by Sustenance:
◦ Producers Autotrophs):
‣ Make organic compounds (sugar, starch) from inorganic substances using
solar energy (photosynthesis).
‣ Examples: Green plants, certain bacteria.
◦ Consumers Heterotrophs):
IFB
‣ Depend on producers directly or indirectly for food.
‣ Categorized as: herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, parasites.
◦ Decomposers:
‣ Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi) that break down dead remains and waste
products of organisms.
‣ Convert complex organic substances into simple inorganic substances,
replenishing the soil for plants.
‣ Essential for natural replenishment and nutrient cycling.
13.1.1 Food Chains and Webs
• Food Chain: A series of organisms feeding on one another, forming biotic levels.
◦ Trophic Levels: Each step or level in a food chain.
‣ First Trophic Level: Autotrophs/Producers (capture solar energy).
‣ Second Trophic Level: Herbivores/Primary Consumers.
‣ Third Trophic Level: Small Carnivores/Secondary Consumers.
‣ Fourth Trophic Level: Larger Carnivores/Tertiary Consumers.
• Energy Flow in Ecosystems:
◦ Interactions involve unidirectional flow of energy from one component to
another.
◦ Producers capture sunlight and convert it to chemical energy.
◦ Efficiency of Energy Transfer:
‣ Green plants capture about 1% of sunlight energy.
‣ Only an average of 10% of food eaten is converted into body mass and
made available for the next trophic level.
‣ The rest is lost as heat, used for digestion, or work.
◦ Consequences of Energy Loss:
‣ Food chains generally consist of only three or four steps due to significant
energy loss at each level.
‣ Very little usable energy remains after four trophic levels.
‣ Greater number of individuals at lower trophic levels (most producers).
• Food Web: A series of branching lines showing that organisms are generally eaten