HARAMBEE UNIVERSITY, FSC

COMMUNICATIVE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

SKILLS II
(FLEN 1012)

SHORT NOTES AND ACTIVITIES

2023/24
Fitche, Ethiopia

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UNIT ONE: LIFE SKILLS
Grammar: Active and Passive Voices
Activity 1
Individually, read the following two dialogues very carefully. Then, in pair, answer the questions
that follow.
1. What is a voice?
2. Which dialogue mainly reflects active voice? Dialogue I or II? Which one mainly reflects
passive verb?
3. What is the difference between active and passive voices? (Hint: their verb structure and
purpose of using each voice.)
4. What is the relationship between voices and tenses? (Hint: Do all passive and active verbs
have the same form in all tenses?)
5. When do we use each voice?
6. Do all verbs have voice? (Hint: think of ‘action verbs’ and ‘linking verbs’).
Dialogue I
Tola: How was the holiday?
Okello: It was fantastic. (1)They organized everything so well. As soon as I arrived at the
airport, (2) my uncle met me and took me to the hotel. (3) Someone put fresh flowers on
the table in my room.
Tola: Oh, how lovely. What about the food?
Okello: It was excellent. (3)They freshly prepared it all in the hotel and (4) they even baked the
bread in the hotel kitchen. (5) They served fresh bread at breakfast every morning.
Tola: Mm, it does sound good. What about the surrounding area? Was it nice?
Okello: Oh, beautiful.
Dialogue II
Tola: How was the holiday?
Okello: It was fantastic. (1) Everything was organized so well. As soon as I arrived at the
airport, (2) I was wet and taken to the hotel by my uncle. (3) Fresh flowers were put on the
table in my room by someone.
Tola: Oh, how lovely. What about the food?

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Okello: It was excellent. (3)It was freshly prepared by them all in the hotel and (4) even the
bread was baked in the hotel kitchen. (5) fresh bread was served by them at breakfast
every morning.
Tola: Mm, it does sound good. What about the surrounding area? Was it nice?
Okello: Oh, beautiful.

 A voice is form of a verb. When we use an active verb, we say what the subject does or
performs. Thus, the subject of the verb is an actor or performer.
Example
My grandfather built this house in 1981. He spent a lot of money on it. After two years, he sold it
for a million Birr.
 When we use a passive verb, we say what happens to the subject. The subject receives an
action. Thus, it is a receiver.
Example
The house was built in 1981. A lot of money was spent on it. Two years later, it was sold for a
million Birr.
 When we use the passive, who or what causes the action can be unknown or unimportant:
Example
 A lot of money was stolen in the robbery. (somebody stole it, but we don’t know who)
 Is this room cleaned every day? (Does somebody clean it? – it’s not important to focus
on the agent)
 If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use the word ‘by’:
Example
This house was built by my grandfather.
Two hundred people are employed by the company.
 In addition to looking at the function of the subject to identify a passive verb, we can look at
its structure. The passive verb is formed by ‘be + past participle’ verbs. The ‘be’ has
different forms in different tenses. We form the passive when we add the past participle of
the main verb to verb ‘to be’. Look at the table below.

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 Tense form of ‘Be’
 simple present is/am/are
 present continuous (is/am/are) being
 perfect tenses (has/have/had)+been
 past tenses was/were
 future tenses; (will/shall)+be or to be
infinitives
 Voice –Tense Relationship
Tenses Active passives
Simple present He cleans the room every day. This room is cleaned by him every day.
Present continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned by him.
Present perfect They have cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by them.
Present perfect con. She has been cleaning the room. The room has been being cleaned by her.
Simple past He fed the dog. The dog was fed by him.
Past cont. Jemal was feeding the dogs. The dogs were being fed by Jemal.
Past perfect Tola had fed the dog. The dog had been fed by Tola.
Future simple Ujulu will feed the dog. The dog will be fed by Ujulu.
Be+going to Negash is going to feed the dog. The dog is going to be fed by Negash.

 Some verbs can have two objects. Thus, it is possible to make two passive sentences. For
example, ‘give’:
 My grandfather gave me this watch:
I was given this watch (by my grandfather). or
This watch was given to me (by my grandfather).
Other verbs which can have two objects are: ask, offer, pay, show and tell,
 When we use these verbs in the passive, most often we begin with the person:
I’ve been offered the job, but I don’t think I want it.
(= somebody has offered me the job)
You will be given plenty of time to decide.
(= we will give you plenty of time)
I didn’t see the original document, but I was shown a copy. (= somebody showed me a copy)

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Tim has an easy job – he’s paid a lot of money to do very little.
(= somebody pays him a lot)
 We say ‘I was born (past)’, (not I am born); but we can say ‘How many babies are born every
day? (Present).
 I was born in Finfine.
 Where were you born? (Not where are you born?)
 We use the verb ‘get’ in passive construction only when things happen.
 There was a fight, but nobody got hurt. (= nobody was hurt)
 I don’t get invited to many parties. (= I’m not invited)
 I’m surprised Liz didn’t get offered the job. (= Liz wasn’t offered the job)
 We can also use ‘verbals’ like gerunds and infinitives in passive construction:
 I remember being taken to the zoo when I was a child (gerund passive).
(= I remember somebody taking me to the zoo=gerund active)
 Steve hates being kept waiting. (= he hates people keeping him waiting)
 We climbed over the wall without being seen. (= without anybody seeing us)
 The ‘said that…’ and ‘supposed to ...’structures are used with a number of verbs like
‘alleged’, ‘believed’, ‘considered’, ‘expected’, ‘known’, ‘reported’, ‘thought’ etc. in
passive construction. These structures are often used in news reports. For example, in a
report about an accident:
 It is reported that two people were or Two people are reported to have
injured in the explosion.
 Lelise is very old. Nobody knows exactly how old she is, but it is said that she is 108
years old or He is said to be 108 years old.
 I want to see that film. It’s supposed to be good. (= people say it’s good)
Activity 2
Write questions using the passive. Some are present and some are past. The first one has been
done for you.
1. Ask about glass. (how/make?) = How is glass made? (Simple present, passive)
2. Ask about television. (when/ invent?)= When___?
3. Ask about mountains. (how /form?)= How ______?
4. Ask about DNA. (when/discover?)= When _______?

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5. Ask about silver. (what/ use for?)= What ________?
Activity 3
Put the verb into the correct form using the present or past and active or passive voice.
1. A. Two hundred people are employed (employ) by the company.
B. . The company employs (employ) 200 people.
2. A. Water (cover) most of the earth’s surface.
B. How much of the earth’s surface (cover) by water?
3. A. While I was on holiday, my camera (steal) from my hotel room.
B. While I was on holiday, my camera (disappear) from my hotel room.
4. A. Robert’s parents (die) when he was very young.
B. Robert and his sister (bring up) by their grandparents.
5. A. The boat hit a rock and (sink) quickly.
B. Fortunately everybody (rescue).
6. A. Bill (fire) from his job. He wasn’t very good at it.
B. Sue (resign) from her job because she didn’t enjoy it any more.
7. A. It can be noisy living here, but it (not / bother) me.
B. It can be noisy living here, but I (not / bother) by it.
8. A. Maria had an accident. She (knock) off her bike.
B. Maria had an accident. She (fall) off her bike.
9. A. I haven’t seen these flowers before. What (they / call)?
B. I haven’t seen these flowers before. What (you / call) them?
Activity 4
Without using the ‘doer’ of the action, write a passive sentence. The first one has been done for
you.
1. Somebody cleans the room every day. The room is cleaned every day.
2. They cancelled all flights because of fog. All____.
3. Somebody accused me of stealing money. Money_____
4. How do you use this word? How________?
5. The price includes all taxes. All taxes _________in the price.
6. People warned us not to go out alone. We __________.
7. We don’t use this office any more. This ___________ .

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8. They invited five hundred people to the five hundred wedding. ____________.
Activity 5
Make sentences from the words in brackets. Sometimes the verb is active and sometimes passive.
The first one has been done for you.
1. There’s somebody behind us. (We / follow) =We’re being followed.
2. This door is a different color, isn’t it? (you/ paint?) =Have you____________?
3. My bike has disappeared. (It / steal!) It ________
4. My umbrella has disappeared. (Somebody /take)= Somebody _________
5. A neighbor of mine disappeared six months ago. (He / not / see / since then)= He________
6. I wonder how Toleshi is these days. (I / not / see / for ages)= I _____________
7. A friend of mine was stung by a bee recently. (you/ ever / sting / bee?)= Have_______?
8. The bridge was damaged recently. (It / repair / at the moment)= It __________
9. Tom’s car was stolen recently. (It / not / find / yet)=
10. I went into the room and saw that the table and chairs were not in the same place. (The
furniture / move)
Activity 6
Complete these sentences using the correct voice and tense.
1. Lemlem retired from her job recently. She (give) a present by her colleagues.
2. I didn’t know that there was a meeting yesterday. I (not / tell) about it.
3. Sarah’s salary is very low. I don’t understand why she (pay) so little.
4. You will need to use this machine. Have you (show) how it works?
5. I had an interview for a job recently. It wasn’t easy. I (ask) some questions that were very
hard for me to answer.
6. They didn’t tell us much about the project. We (not / give) enough information.
7. I was surprised to get the job I applied for. I didn’t expect (offer) it.
Activity 7
A. Use the ‘said that …’ structure using the verbs given. The first one has been done for you.
1. Jitu loves running (said). It is said that she runs 10 miles a day or she is said to run 10 miles a
day.
2. A missing boy wears a white sweater and blue jeans (believe;.). It ____
3. The strike started three weeks ago. It will end soon (expect). The strike ____

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4. A friend of mine has been arrested. He stole a car. (allege). It ______
5. The two houses belong to the same family. There is a secret tunnel between them (say).It
________
B. Write these sentences in another way, beginning as shown. Use the italicized word each time.
Example
 It is expected that the strike will end soon.
= The strike is expected to end soon.
1. It is reported that many people are homeless after the floods. Many people..
2. It is thought that the thieves got in through a window in the roof. The thieves…
3. It is alleged that the driver of the car was driving at 110 miles an hour. The driver
4. It is reported that the building has been badly damaged by the fire. The building
5. It is said that the company is losing a lot of money. The company
C. Complete these sentences using the words in brackets and any other necessary words.
Example
A: What’s the City Hotel like? Can you recommend it?
B: I’ve never stayed there, but it’s supposed to be (it / supposed) very good.
1. A: How much are these paintings worth?
B: I’m not sure, but (they / supposed) very valuable.
2. A: This looks an interesting building.
B: Yes, (it / supposed) a prison a long time ago.
3. A: Is it true that your neighbors were lucky in the lottery?
B: Yes, (they / supposed / win) a lot of money.
4. A: Is it possible to climb to the top of the tower?
B: Yes, (the view / supposed) very nice.
5. A: I heard that Laura has gone away.
B: Yes, (she / supposed / living) in London now.

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UNIT TWO: THE FUTURE OF SCIENCE
Grammar: Ways of Expressing Future Time
Activity 2.1
Read the following dialogue in pairs. Study the forms written in bold in the dialogue and answer
the questions that follow:
Matiyas, who was born and raised in London, is going to visit different places in Ethiopia this
summer with his Ethiopian parents, who have made some arrangements. Matiyas is telling his
cousin, Gutu about their plans on the telephone. The following is part of the telephone
conversation.
Matiyas: First, we are going to spend a week in Finfinne.
Gutu: What for?
Matiyas: We are going to visit the old palace, the new parks and the museums there.
Gutu: Okay, what else can you see in Finfinne?
Matiyas: I asked my father to see dairy farms in Ethiopia and we will see the largest one in
Oromia.
Gutu: What is that dairy farm?
Matiyas: It is a big farm where milk products are processed. I will tell you more after I see it.
Gutu: So what are you going to do then?
Matiyas: Next, we are going to visit our relatives in Shambu. I’ll meet a lot of my family
members.
Gutu: Oh! Great! I can’t wait to see you here in person. How long will you stay here with us?
Matiyas: Maybe two weeks. Next, we are going to Asossa to visit my mother’s relatives. We
will stay there for ten days. Then, we will travel to Gambella if we have enough time.
Gutu: You are lucky that you will learn a lot of things during your tour. I have never been out
of my town, Shambu.
Matiyas: Really? I will ask my parents if you can accompany us to Asossa and Gambella. I hope
they will agree.
Gutu: Thank you, my brother. I wish you a happy holiday!
1. What is the difference between the two forms?
2. What is the difference between the two forms in use?

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A. ‘Be+ going to +V1 ‘
 The form be + going + v1 is used to express what we have planned to do in the future.
Example
 I am going to play football with my friends the coming weekend.
 We’re going to stay in a small village in Arsi this summer.
 Look at those black clouds! It’s going to rain (=we can see the clouds now)
 I feel terrible. I think I’m going to be sick. (=I feel terrible now)
 The economic situation is bad now and things are going to get worse.
 We also use be + going to when we can see now that something is sure to happen in the
future.
 Be careful! That glass is going to fall!
B ‘Will/shall +V1
 The form ‘will/shall +v1 is used to:
a. express what we wish to do; what we’ve just decided to do; we announce our decision:
 Oh, I left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
 ‘What would you like to drink?’ ‘I’ll have orange juice, please.’
 ‘Did you call Max?’ ‘Oh no, I forgot. I’ll call him now.’
b. Predict the future using expressions like ‘probably’, ‘I’m sure’, ‘I think’, ‘I don’t think’ and
‘I wonder’.
 I’ll probably be home late tonight.
 Don’t worry about the exam. I’m sure you’ll pass.
 Do you think Sarah will like the present we bought her?
 I don’t think the exam will be very difficult.
 I wonder what will happen.
 We use ‘shall I … ?’ / ‘shall we … ?’ to ask if it’s OK to do something or to ask for a
suggestion:
 Shall I open the window? (= do you want me to open it?)
 I’ve got no money. What shall I do? (= what do you suggest?)
 ‘Shall we go?’ ‘Just a minute. I’m not ready yet.’

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  ‘Where shall we have lunch?’ ‘Let’s go to Marino’s.’
 Compare shall I … ? and will you … ? :
 Shall I shut the door? (= do you want me to shut it?)
 Will you shut the door? (= I want you to shut it)
 Normally we use ‘shall’ only with ‘I’ and ‘we’. You can say: ‘I shall’ or ‘I will (I’ll)’; ‘we
shall’ or ‘we will’ (we’ll)
 I shall be late this evening. (or I will be)
 We shall probably go to France in June. (or We will probably go)
 In spoken English, we normally use I’ll and we’ll:
 We’ll probably go to France.
 We do not normally use shall with he/she/it/you/they:
 She will be very angry. (not She shall be)
C. Using Present Continuous Tense (be+v1+-ing form= I am doing)
 This tense is used to express what is already fixed or arranged. For example, you have
arranged to go somewhere or meet somebody:
 I’m leaving next week. I’ve booked my flight.
 What time are you meeting Emil this evening?
 Often, there is no difference between the uses of the ‘going to +v1’ and the present
continuous tense (be+ v+ ‘-ing’) to refer to future intention.
Example
 I’m seeing Sara tonight.
 I’m going to see Sara tonight.
D. Using the Simple Present Tense
 We use this tense to express scheduled events
 The plane to London takes off this afternoon.
 The university senate calls the meeting this morning.
Note that we do not use the present simple (I do / I go etc.) in the following contexts:
 I’ll phone him now. (not I phone him now)

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Activity 2.2
Choose the appropriate grammatical form given in brackets.
1. A: “Where are you going on holiday?”
B: I don’t know yet. Maybe (I will go/I am going) to Jimma.
2. A: Are you watching the game? The current result is 5 to 2, the leading team (will/is going
to) win the match.
B: I think you (are going to/will) like this movie.
3. A: We (will get /are getting) married next year.
B: I can’t join you at the party, I (am going to be/ will be) away for two weeks.
4. A: You (will see/ are seeing) the doctor tomorrow at 4.00.
B: Have you heard? Yadi is pregnant. She (is going to/will) have a baby.
5. A: This homework looks really hard. I (will/am going to) help you.
B: Don’t forget that we (are going/will go) out with Lubaco and Medina tonight! Look at that
beautiful sky! It (won’t/is not going to) rain today.
Activity 2.3
Write questions with ‘going to’ structure.
1. Your friend has won some money. You ask: (what / do?) What are you going to do with it?
2. Your friend is going to a wedding next week. You ask (what / wear?)
3. Your friend has just bought a new table. You ask: (where / put?)
4. Your friend has decided to have a party. You ask:(who / invite?)
5. Your friend has bought some fish for dinner. You ask: (how / cook?)
Activity 2.4
Complete the sentences using ‘I’m going to … / I’m not going to … .’ forms.
Choose from:
complain learn try wash tell
run say accept not eat not
Example
This cheese smells horrible= I’m not going to eat it.
1. I have to make a speech tomorrow, but I don’t know what ….
2. The car is very dirty. I know…. it.
3. I’ve been offered a job, but… it. The pay is too low.

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4. One day in a marathon. It’s my ambition….
5. The food in this restaurant is awful.
6. Ben doesn’t need to know what happened, so he…
Activity 2.5
What is going to happen in these situations? Use the words in brackets.
Example
There are a lot of black clouds in the sky. (rain) =It’s going to rain.
1. It is 8.30. Tom is leaving home. He has to be at work at 8.45, but the journey takes 30
minutes. (late)= He
2. There is a hole in the bottom of the boat. A lot of water is coming in through the hole.(sink)
=The boat
3. Amy and Ben are driving. The tank is nearly empty. It’s a long way to the nearest petrol
station. (run out)= They
4. Sarah’s car was badly damaged in an accident. Now it has to be repaired. (cost a lot) =It to
repair the car.
Activity 2.6
Read the situations and write sentences with ‘I think I’ll’ … or ‘I don’t think I’ll … ‘.
Example
It’s a bit cold. The window is open and you decide to close it. You say:
 It’s cold with the window open. I think I’ll close it.
1. You are feeling tired and it’s getting late. You decide to go to bed. You say:
I’m tired, so good night!
2. The weather is nice and you need some exercise. You decide to go for a walk. You say:
It’s a lovely morning. . Do you want to come too?
3. You were going to have lunch. Now you decide you don’t want to eat anything. You say:
I don’t feel hungry any more. lunch.
4. You planned to go swimming today. Now you decide not to go. You say:
I’ve got a lot to do, so today.

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Activity 2.7
Choose the correct answer.
1. A: Did you call Max?
B: Oh no, I forgot. I (call / I’ll call) him now.
2. I can’t meet you tomorrow morning. I’(m playing / I’ll play) tennis.
3. I (meet / I’ll meet) you outside the hotel at 10.30, OK?’ ‘Yes, that’s fine.’
4. Please don’t go yet.’ ‘OK, I’(m staying / I’ll stay) a little longer, but I have to go soon.
5. I’(m having / I’ll have) a party next Saturday. I hope you can come.
6. Remember to lock the door when you go out.’ ‘OK. I (don’t forget / I won’t forget.)’
7. ‘Do you have any plans for the weekend?’ ‘Yes, we’(re going / we’ll go) to a wedding.’
8. (Are you doing / Will you do) anything tomorrow evening?’ ‘No, I’m free. Why?’
9. ‘(Do you do / Will you do) something for me?’ ‘It depends. What do you want me to do?’
10. ‘(Do you go / Will you go) to work by car?’ ‘Not usually. I prefer to walk.’

UNIT THREE: ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION

Grammar: Modal Verbs and their Functions
Activity 3.1
In pairs, discuss the Following Questions before reading the notes that follow:
1. What does ‘modal verb’ mean?
2. What is the function of modal verbs?
3. Are modal verbs helping verbs or main verbs?

 Modal verbs (modals) are verbs that add the meaning of logical possibility, ability, necessity,
and permission to verbs, which have a degree of strength from stronger to weaker. Modals
come before infinitive verbs without “to”.
 Modals help to express the mood or attitude of the speaker and convey ideas about
possibility, probability, necessity, obligation, advisability, and permission.
 Some examples of how single-word modal auxiliaries influence meaning
Statement Meaning/function
1 I can go. I am able to go; I have permission to go.

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2 I could go. If certain conditions were met, I would be able to go.
3 I may go. It’s not certain, but there’s a chance that I’ll go; I have permission to go.
4 I might go. It’s not certain, but there’s a chance I’ll go.
5 I must go. I am obliged to go.
6 I shall go. I am going (in the future).
7 I should go. It is advisable/recommended/obligatory that I go.
8 I will go. It’s certain that I am going (in the future); I am willing to go.
9 I would go. My going is uncertain; it depends on certain conditions.

 Modals do not need to match their subject in plural agreement, so there is no need to add an
“-s” or “-es” ending to a modal.
 The nine most common modals are can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, and
must.
 Look at the functions of some of the common modals presented in the table below.
Use/function Modal Examples
must (the most certain) The dark clouds must rain today.
Logica will Due to the news, the stock will go down.
l possibility would The chemical would help the experiment.
should The case should prevent cracking.
may This change may improve the results.
can Being careless can have bad consequences.
could The charm could protect you.
might (the least certain) I might be tired tomorrow.
Ability can (stronger ability) He can type 34 words per minute.
could (weaker ability) I could assist by interpreting the results.
shall (suggestion) Shall we dance?
Necessity must (obligation) They must go to work today.
should (advice) You should floss every day.

Permission may (most formal) May I turn my paper in tomorrow?

might Might he have some more soup?
could Could I buy the new model?
can (least formal) Can I go to my friend’s house?

A. Logical Possibility

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Logical possibility modals add a degree of possibility to an action. “Must” is the strongest modal
that implies a possibility will occur while “could” and “might” imply that the speaker is unsure
of the action happening.
Example
 The weather report showed a 99% chance of rain, so it must rain.
 You might find an open store after 12:00 AM.
In the first example, the modal is “must” It is placed before the verb “rain” and indicates that the
writer believes there is a strong possibility of rain. In the second example, the modal is “might.”
It is placed before the verb “find” and indicates that the writer believes there is a low chance the
reader will “find an open store after 12:00 AM.”
B. Ability
 Ability modals add a degree to a subject's ability to do an action.
Examples
 Pigeons have a special ability; they can recognize themselves in mirrors.
 The editor could edit 70 pages in two days.
In the first example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the verb “recognize” and indicates
that the writer knows that pigeons recognize themselves in mirrors. In the second example, the
modal is “could.” It is placed before the verb “edit” and indicates that the writer knows to a
weaker degree that the editor has the ability to edit “70 pages in two days.”
C. Necessity
Necessity modals add a degree of recommendation to an action.
Examples
 The kids must drink water every day.
 My students should do their homework every night.
In the first example, the modal is “must.” It is placed before the verb “drink” and indicates a
strong recommendation that kids drink water every day. In the second example, the modal is
“should.” It is placed before the verb “do” and indicates a weaker recommendation that students
do their homework every night.

D. Permission

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Permission modals tend to be used in requests. The strength of the modal will determine how
formal a request is by adding a degree of formality to a question.
Examples
 May I go to the restroom?
 Can you throw me the ball?
In the first example, the modal is “may.” It is placed before the subject “I” because it is written
in the question format. “May” indicates a strong formality and makes a request to use the
restroom. In the second example, the modal is “can.” It is placed before the subject “you” and
indicates a more casual request for you to throw the ball. The following chart demonstrates some
uses for single-word modal auxiliaries.
In some cases, when the verb tense changes, the modal is replaced with another word or group of
words. Look at the following details (meaning or function, tenses and negative forms):
1. Can
 To express Ability (meaning or function)
 He can play the piano. /present/
 He could play the piano. /past/
 He will be able to play the piano. /future/
 He cannot play the piano. /negative form/
 To express opportunity
 I can go now, I’ve finished it. /present/
 I was able to go when I finished working. /past/
 I can go when I finish working later tonight. / future/
 I cannot go./negative /
 To express Permission
 They say they can have a party. /present/
 They said they were allowed to have a party. /past/
 They will surely say that they can have a party. /future/
 They cannot have a party. (negative/
 Informal request (near future) (no present and past forms)
 Can I borrow your book?/future/
 Can’t I borrow your book?/negative/

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  Possibility (a generalization)
 It can be tiring to study &work at the same time. /present form/.
 It can’t be tiring to sit around & watch TV all day!/negative/
2. Could
 Past of can
 Before I hurt my wrist, I could toss pizza dough. /past form/
 Even before I hurt my wrist, I couldn’t toss pizza dough. /negative form/.
 Conditional
 I could have made an omelet if we had had the ingredients. /past form/
 I could make an omelet if we have the ingredients. /future/.
 I couldn’t make an omelet even if we had the ingredients. /past /.
 Suggestion
 You could have taken a long weekend to visit them. /past/.
 You could take a long weekend to visit them./future/
 Polite Request ( near future)
 Could you phone me when you arrive? /future form/
 Couldn’t you phone me when you arrive? /negative/
 Possibility / Impossibility
 She could be the electors’ choice for him. (present form)
 She could have been the electors’ choice for him (past form)
 She could become mayor. (future form)
 She couldn't be the electors’ choice for him. (Negative form).
3. May
 Permission
 You may submit your paper via email now./present/
 You were allowed to submit your paper via email./past/
 When you finish, you may submit your paper./future/
 You may not submit your paper via email. (negative form)
 Polite Request ( near future)
 May I use your phone? /future form/
 Possibility

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  The bakery may be open now. /present/
 The bakery may have opened earlier today. /past/
 The bakery may open later today. /future/
 The bakery may not open. /negative/
4. Might
 Request ( near future)
 Might I use your phone? /future/
 Conditional
 If you give me a chance, I might impress you! /present/
 If you had given me a chance, I might have impressed you!/past/
 If you give me a chance, I might impress you!/future/
 Even if you give me a chance, I might not impress. /negative/
 Suggestion
 You might have called to say you weren’t coming. /past/
 You might call to say you aren’t coming. /future/
 You might not want to call …./negative/
 Possibility
 She might be the one who made the mess./present/
 She might have made the mess. /past/
 She might make a mess./future/
 She might not make a mess./negative/
5. Must
 Certainty
 She must be the best athlete in our school’s history. /present/
 She must have been the best athlete in our school’s history. /past/
 She must not be the best athlete in our school. /negative/
 Strong recommendation
 To be healthy, you must eat well.
 To have stayed healthy, you should have eaten better.
 To be healthier, you should eat better.
 To be healthy, you mustn’t eat poorly.

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  Necessity
 Visitors must sign in at reception./present/
 In the past, visitors had to sign in at reception. /past/
 In the future, visitors must sign in at reception. /future/
 Visitors don’t have to sign in at reception./negative/
 Mustn’t
 Prohibition
 You must not disrupt his concentration /negative/.
6. Shall
 Inevitability
 One day, we shall overcome our dependence on oil. /future/
 Humanity shall never abandon the quest for immortality./negative/
 Promising (British usage)
 I shall ensure that everything goes according to plan/future/.
 I shall not let you down/ negative/.
 Future Action (British usage)
 Our train shall arrive ahead of schedule./future/
 Our train shall not arrive ahead of schedule after all/negative/
7. Should
 Recommendation
 For strong bones, you should drink milk.
 For stronger bones, you should have drunk milk.
 For strong bones, you should start drinking milk.
 You shouldn’t drink too much milk.
 Obligation
 I should return this library book./future/
 Expectation
 She should be at the airport right now./present/
 She should have arrived at the airport by now./past/
 She should arrive at the airport before 9 o’clock tonight./future/
 She shouldn’t be at the airport yet./negative/

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8. Will
 Future Action
 We will go to the movie tonight./future/
 We will not go to the movie tonight./negative/

 Promising
 I will ensure that everything goes according to plan./future/
 I will not disappoint you.
9. Would
 Past of will
 You said we would go to the movie/past/.
 You said we wouldn’t go./negative/
 Conditional
 If I were in trouble, I would ask him for help./present/
 If I had been in trouble, I would have asked him for help/past/.
 If I got into trouble, I would ask him for help/future/
 Even if I got into trouble, I would not ask him for help./negative/
 Repetition in the past / habitual action or behavior
 When we were kids, we would always play street hockey in the alley/past/.
 When we were kids, we would not play street hockey in the alley/negative/
Activity 3.2
Identify whether the sentence is describing logical possibility, ability, necessity, or permission.
Some sentences can be identified as more than one or have multiple uses.
1. You might win the lottery, but the chances are low.
2. Alona can start a fire in five minutes.
3. Hyunh should get braces.
4. Can I move out next week?
5. Navya could run a mile in 11 minutes.
6. May I get my grade tonight?
7. It could rain tomorrow.
8. I can eat this cotton candy in three seconds.

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9. Yang should catch his flight tomorrow if he arrives at the airport early.
10. They must complete their parts of the assignment, or we will fail.
Activity 3.3
Fill in the blank with a modal based on the use and degree of strength given in the brackets.
1. The restaurant __________ have digital menus on the tables.
(logical possibility, most certain)
2. The bus __________ be on time today. (logical possibility, least certain)
3. Everyone __________ brush their teeth every day. (necessity, advice)
4. __________ Inessa and I go to the nurse’s office?
(permission, most formal).
5. We __________ write so quickly. (ability, stronger).
6. Darius, __________ I have another cookie after dinner?
(permission, somewhat formal)
7. I __________ finish my finish my writing test in one hour.
(ability, stronger or somewhat certain)
8. It __________ snow in Texas if the weather keeps changing.
(logical possibility, less certain)
9. You __________ not text while you drive! (necessity, obligation)
10. The kids _____ have cleaned the house before we get home. (logical possibility, somewhat
certain)

UNIT FOUR: INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE

Grammar: Reported Speech
Activity 4.1: Identifying Direct and Reported Speech
Read the following paragraph and identify sentences with direct and reported speech. Then,
discuss about their differences between the two in your group.

Maria recently returned from a conference in Dubai and told her colleagues about her trip there.
She said that the architecture of Dubai was fascinating, with many new buildings of glass and
steel. Of course, she also saw the Burj Khalifa, the world’s tallest building. Some of her friends
went up to the top, but Maria said she didn’t because she has a fear of heights. “I don’t even like

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being on a second-story balcony, so the Burj Khalifa was definitely out of the question for me!”
Maria said that there were many shopping centers in Dubai, but that they were expensive. The
weather was “unbelievably hot.” On her last night in Dubai, Maria and her friends went on a
dinner cruise on a small boat in the harbor. There was music and great food, and they could see
the lights of the city as the boat cruised through the harbor. “It was the perfect ending to two
weeks in

Dubai,” she said.

 Direct speech is a way of reporting a spoken text that quotes the exact words of the speaker
or writer or as originally spoken. It is usually placed in quotations mark and accompanied
with reporting verbs.
Example:
 "How old are you?" the man asked.
She said, "What time will you be home?"
 Reported speech is used when words or phrases are reported in our own words. The original
words are modified and/or interpreted as opposed to being quoted.
Example:
A. Biru said, “I love watching TV.” (Direct speech)
Biru said that he loved watching TV. (Reported speech)
B. Chaltu said, “I will bring it.” (Direct speech)
Chaltu said that she would bring it. (Reported speech)
Some of the verbs used to in reporting speech:
 say, tell, explain, to report statements
 ask, inquire and want to know to report questions
 warn, advise and order to report commands
 When you change the direct speech into indirect speech, you will change verb tenses,
pronouns, adverbs of time and place.
A. Changing Direct statements into indirect statements
 Direct Speech: The child said, “The sun rises in the east.”

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Indirect Speech: The child said that the sun rises in the east.
 Direct Speech: The students explained, “It is easy to do.”
Indirect Speech: The students explained that it was easy to do.
B. Changing direct questions into indirect questions
 "Where are you going?" she asked me.
She asked me where I was going.
 He said to him, “Are you ill?”
He asked him if he was ill.
C. Changing direct imperative into indirect imperatives
 The teacher said to me, “Shut the door.”
The teacher ordered me to shut the door
 “Drop the weapon!” the commander ordered.
The commander ordered them to drop the weapon.
Activity 4.2
Change the following direct speech into reported speech.
1. He said, “I am your neighbor.”
2. The teacher advised, “Read the module carefully.”
3. She said, “I am doing the homework.”
4. “What is your name?” he asked me.
5. “I saw new a film.” he said.
6. He asked me, “Do you have a book?”
7. Rafiq said, “I shall leave for London.”
Activity 4.3
Change the direct speech into indirect speech.
1. “What are you doing here Tola?" Chaltu asked.
2. "Did you enjoy the film?” Jemal asked Toleshi.
3. "Did you go to Shambu?” he asked me.

Activity 4.4

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 Choose the correct form of the following reported speeches. Suppose that the report was done
sometime after the direct speech.
1. “Come in”, he allowed me.
A. He allowed me come in. B. He allowed me to come in.
C. He allowed me come. D. He allows me comes in.
2. “Can you read it?”, she asked me.
A. She asked me what I read. C. She asked me if I read it.
B. She asked me if I could read it. D. She asked me if I can read it.
3. “Why are you here?” he asked Lema.
A. He asked Lema if he was there. B. He asked Lema why he was here.
C. He asked Lema why he was there. D. He asked Lema whether he was there.
4. “We knew it”, they said.
A. They said that they knew it. C. They said that they had known it.
B. They said that we knew it. D. They said that we had known it.

UNIT 5: CULTURAL HERITAGES

Grammar: Relative Clauses
Activity 5.1
A. Discuss the following questions in your group.
1. What do you know about relative clauses? How are they formed?
2. What are defining and non-defining relative clauses?
3. Why relative clauses are called so?
B. Identify the sentences with relative clauses in the following dialogue.
A: Jack! Welcome back! How was the trip?
B: I am very exhausted. You know, I was annoyed with the man who sat next to me on the plane.
He talked all the time.
A: Oh, really? What did he talk about?
B: Actually, it was unbelievable. He was talking about my friend, Grace, the whole time. He was
in love with my friend whom he met last year but left him after only a month.
A: Oh! What a small world.

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A. Defining Relative Clauses
 Defining relative clauses specify a noun or pronoun in the main clause and are necessary if
we want to understand the meaning of a sentence. They usually define common nouns such
as student, man, river, country, and so on.
 Relative clauses are called so because they begin with relative pronouns.
 When using defining relative clauses in informal speech and writing, the relative pronoun can
be left out completely if it refers to the object of the relative clause.
Example,
1. This is the shirt that I bought.
2. This is the shirt I bought.
 We do not use the comma before and after the defining relative clause.
Example
1. I saw the girl who was outside our house.
2. They wanted the picture that cost two pounds.
The relative pronouns ‘who’ and ‘that’ help us to define what girl or picture we are talking about.
Other pronouns which serve a similar purpose include which, whose and whom.
B. Non-Defining Relative Clauses
 Non-defining relative clauses do not specify nouns and pronouns; they only add extra
information about a preceding noun or pronoun. Unlike defining clauses, they are written
with commas. They come and add information about proper nouns naturally known.
Example,
1. My father, who is 65 now, still works.
2. His car, which costs nearly 20,000 pounds, is broken.
3. I gave the letter to James, who sent it to London.
Activity 5.5.2
Select the correct relative pronoun from the list given and complete the blank space in each of
the following sentences.
where when who
which why whose
1. This is a restaurant ------------- you can find many different cuisines from around the world.

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2. The moment ------------------ I found out the exam results was one of the worst times in my
life.
3. Those ------------------ are eager to join the Spanish class should sign up by tomorrow.
4. Los Angeles, --------------------- is one the most visited tourist destinations, is a fascinating
city.
5. I would like to know the reason --------------- you decided not to join us.
6. The Amazons, ---------------- warrior nature is stressed in Greek mythology, have been a
popular subject for the movie industry.
7. The Early Bronze Age was a period -------------- the climate was significantly warmer and
drier than today.
8. Anyone ---------------- is interested in mountaineering should have enough physical strength
to endure the harsh conditions.
9. Creating a website ---------------- is accessible to color blind people can make a big
difference.
10. One of the reasons ---------------- most of us change is because we need to adjust and adopt to
the changing life conditions.
11. The 19th century artist, --------------- name I couldn’t remember, was very prolific at his time.
Activity 5.3
Identify the pronoun that best completes each sentence.
1. Do you know anyone which/ who can repair cigarette burns on clothes?
2. It’s usually children from deprived backgrounds that/ which cause the worst problems.
3. The Council provides bins in that/ which waste paper can be deposited for recycling.
4. Address the reference ‘to who/whom it may concern’, as it’s very formal.
5. The town hall clock played a different tune at twelve every day, which/ what amused the
locals and attracted tourists.
6. There’s a lucky person in this hall who/ whose lottery ticket has won them 7, 000,000 Birr.
7. Why don’t you tell the police which/ what you told me yesterday?
8. The film is set in the period where/ when the divide between rich and poor was much greater
than it is now.
9. You can put the photo whichever/ wherever you think it looks best.

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Activity 5.4
In pairs, read the paragraph about birth order. Complete each sentence with who, whom, that, or
whose. The first one is done for you as an example.
Birth order researchers have discovered some interesting information (1. that) can help us
understand our colleagues better. Do you have a difficult boss (2. -----------) authoritarian
personality makes your life difficult? If so, your boss might be a firstborn child. Children (3. ----)
are born first are often more authoritarian than their younger siblings. Do you have a co-worker
(4. --------------) is passive, but particularly creative and insightful? This person may be a middle
child. People (5..------------) have both older and younger siblings are often passive because their
older siblings were responsible for their well-being when they were young. The creativity (6.
--------------) they exhibit might be the effect of their having spent a lot of time on their own due
to having to share parental attention with their older and younger siblings. People (7.
------------------) you work with (8. -------------------) are controlling may be youngest children.
These people are also likely to be more social than co-workers (9. -----------------) are middle
children. Of course, these are only generalizations. There are countless factors (10.
------------------) help form people’s personalities, but birth order research may shed some helpful
light on people’s behavior in the workplace.
Activity 5.5
Complete the passage with suitable relative pronouns. There may be more than one possible
answer.
How would you feel if you suddenly had to stop using Facebook or Twitter? For
people ...................... lives revolve around social networks, this would be a big sacrifice.
However, that is exactly what Alicia Keys, .............................. has more than 2.5 million
followers on Twitter, decided to do. She also asked other celebrities like Lady Gaga, Justin
Timberlake, Serena Williams and Elijah Wood to do the same. It happened on 1stDecember,
2010, ..................... is World AIDS day. This is a day ................. the world pays special attention
to this terrible disease, .................... has killed so many people. These celebrities stopped using
Facebook and Twitter until their fans, ...................... get the usual news direct from the stars,
donated $1 million to an AIDS organization called Keep a Child Alive.

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