CHAPTER THREE Definition of terms

POPULATION DYNAMICS 1. Population dynamics- the ever-changing structure of

population due to factors such as birth rate, death rate,
Introduction migration.
2. Birth rate- the number of children born alive per 1000
people in a given year.
Population refers to the total number of a specified group of
3. Death rate- the number of deaths per 1000 people in a
people or of animals or of plants living in an area at a particular
given year.
time. The scientific study of human population is called
4. Natural increase rate- the difference between the birth
demography. It deals with the distribution of population over
and death rate in a similar year.
space and time. Demography employs statistical and scientific
5. Life expectancy- the average number of years a
data analysis of the population. Demographers also study the
newborn child is expected to live from birth.
characteristics of human populations especially the way people
6. De facto population- total number of people who are
are distributed in terms of different ages and the ratio between
in a country during a census. It includes all visitors and
males and females. The sex and age characteristics of
foreigners but excludes citizens who are out of the
population are shaped by combined influences of births, deaths
country at a time when census is conducted.
and migration. Births, deaths and migration account for the
7. De jure population- total number of people present in
growth, size, density and distribution of populations over time
a country during a census (de facto) plus all citizens
and space. A high proportion of the young people usually mean
outside the country during a census.
that the population has a high birth rate but it can also mean
8. Infant mortality rate- the number of children who die
that the life expectancy is low. Botswana’s population size has
before the age of 12 months per 1000 live births.
increased overtime but its growth rate has been declining
9. Child mortality rate- the average number of children
steadily. Between 1971 and 1981 Botswana’s population grew
who die before the age of 5 per 1000 live births.
at 4.5% per annum, between 1981 and 1991 it grew by 3.5%
10. Un-inhabited area- an area which is not occupied by
and between 1991 and 2001 it grew by 2.4%.
people.
11. Sparsely populated area- an area occupied by few
people e.g. less than 1 person per square kilometre.
12. Densely populated area- an area occupied by many
people e.g. 10 or more people per square kilometre.

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 13. Population density- the average number of people per childbearing of a woman. It can differ from one woman to
unit area. other depending on various factors. Some of the factors
14. Fertility rate- the average number of live births that a influencing fertility rate are related directly to the belief and
woman is capable of producing during her reproductive value structures of a given society, whilst others might be
period per 1000 women. related to the political and economic structures.
15. Dependent population- people who are economically
dependent or inadequate e.g. children aged below 15 Social factors:
and the very old who are no longer working.
16. Dependency ratio- the proportion of the working to the - Religion- Some churches like Roman Catholic do not
non-working population. allow their members to use artificial contraceptives
17. Overpopulation- when there are more people in an such as pills and condoms. As a result members of such
area than the available resources can support. churches are likely to have many children. On the other
18. Optimum population- when the population and hand religions such as Islam allow polygamous
available resources are equal i.e. there is a balance marriages which often result in large families.
between resources and people. - Education- Less developed countries experience a high
19. Migration- movement of people across a specified fertility rate due to a large number of uneducated
boundary either permanently or temporarily. people who generally have little or no knowledge about
20. Emigration- movement of people out of a particular the use of contraceptives and family planning.
place(out-migration) Education also prevents early childbearing and teenage
21. Immigration- coming of people from other area into a pregnancy which often results in high fertility rate.
particular area (in-migration) Educated women tend to bear children at a later stage
22. Population structure-refers to composition of the than uneducated ones because want to attain certain
population e.g. ratio of males to females or proportion qualifications before they can establish families.
of working to non-working population. - Preference for a particular sex- Some families may
want to have a certain number of boys or girls. If they
Factors influencing fertility rate fail to have the preferred sex ratio they will continue to
Fertility rate refers to the number of live births that a woman is bear children with the hope that they will achieve the
capable of producing during her reproductive period. The term desired number of boys or girls. This often results in
used to describe the biological capacity to reproduce is larger numbers of children than initially planned for.
fecundity. It can refer to the biological capacity of both Traditionally male children were more preferred
females and males to reproduce. Fertility refers to the actual because they inherited family name and property.

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 Economic factors: they reach the age of ten they are usually contributing
more economically than they are consuming.
- Country’s level of development- Developed countries - Gender inequality- Traditionally the role of women
generally have low fertility rates because they can was to stay at home and look after children. The
afford to provide their people with enough number of children a family desired was decided by the
contraceptives to prevent frequent and unwanted husband only. In most cases men wanted to have many
pregnancies. Such countries can also afford other children as they thought it symbolised their virility or
measures of controlling fertility rate such as providing sexual power.
incentives for smaller families. On the other hand
undeveloped or poor countries cannot afford to provide Factors contributing to rapid population growth
their people with enough resources to curb fertility rates
and as a result they tend to have high fertility and birth There are two major factors that result in population growth:
rates.
- Desire for wealth- Some families may decide to limit a) A higher birth rate than death rate
the numbers of their children for economic reasons e.g.
when a family wants to buy expensive items as cars, Population growth is mainly determined by the difference
houses and other luxurious items they avoid having between the birth rate and the death rate. When the birth rate is
many children so that they cannot disturb their budgets. higher than the death rate then the population increases. This
- Economic returns- Some families regard children as simply means that when there are more people born than those
economic investments rather than a liability. They want dying then there will be a rise in population. This results in
to have many children so that when they retire or reach natural increase in population. If the dearth rate is higher than
old age such children can support and protect them. birth rate there would be negative growth or natural decrease.

Cultural Factors: b) Factors leading to high birth rates:

- early childbearing
- Use of family labour- Traditional societies encouraged - use of family labour
large families because most of their economic well- - lack of use of contraceptives
being was based on availability of labour at family level - old age security
including child labour. For such families a large - lack of education on family planning
number of children is an advantage because by the time - desire for a particular sex
- religious beliefs against use of contraceptives

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Factors leading to low death rates farmlands which will result in rapid depletion and
- improved quality of health services and facilities degradation of resources such as vegetation, water and
- better nutrition and diet soil.
- emergence of old age homes and allowance  Urbanisation: Many people will move from rural to
- improved standards of hygiene urban areas in search of better living standards. As a
- improved supply of clean water. result there is going to be overcrowding in towns which
will lead to problems such as traffic congestion and
a) Immigration (in-migration) being more than overuse of resources.
emigration (out-migration)
 Development of slums: When population increases
When there is a higher number of people coming into a beyond control there will be shortage of housing which
particular settlement (immigrants) than those leaving will force people to establish illegal settlements called
(emigrants) the population of the settlement will increase. This slums or squatter camps. Squatter camps are usually
explains why urban settlements in Botswana have a higher characterised by poorly planned houses, unsanitary
population growth rate than rural settlements. Earlier in this surroundings and high level of pollution (water, land,
chapter we learnt that rural-urban migration is the most air and noise).
common form of migration hence the rapid growth of
Botswana’s urban areas.  Pollution: A high population will increase amount of
waste in the environment. Drinking water is often
Effects of high population on the environment contaminated due to leakage from sewage pipes and
this may give rise to various diseases such as cholera
The natural environment is a resource upon which people and bilharzia. Local industries also have a habit of
depend for their daily lives. People live on the environment and discarding untreated waste in unauthorised areas which
the environment depends on how people utilise it for better or also pollutes the land, air and water. It is also costly for
worse. Thus it is the environment that supports people for all the district or town council to clean up contaminated
their socio-economic and political activities. The following are surroundings.
some of the negative effects of human growth on the
environment:  Land degradation: Too much pressure on farmlands
and indiscriminate cutting down of trees for farming
 Shortage of farmlands: Population growth results in and creation of settlements may expose the soil to
too many people scrambling for limited available agents of erosion such as wind and water. Loss of top

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 soil result in loss of soil fertility and as a result there
will be less yields and in the long run the place will turn  Land use conflicts: A high population may create
into a desert. conflicts over the use of some resources. For instance
illegal settlements on the outskirts of large towns may
 Overuse and extinction of resources: Increased create conflicts between the squatters and the town
population may lead to more exploitation of resources council. Due to shortage of land people may end up
in order to maintain the ever-growing population. Some creating settlements on agricultural land and thus
resources like minerals are non-renewable and therefore creating conflicts with affected farmers.
if finished take millions of years to regenerate. This will
compromise the ability of the future generation to Possible solutions to rapid population growth
benefit from the same resources. Population increase
leads to over-harvesting of natural resources such as  Promotion of family planning and use of
‘phane’ and fuelwood. Some plants and animal species contraceptives: There should be enough education on
can end up being extinct due to over-use. the available family planning methods and their
accessibility to people in remote and rural areas should
 Rise in unemployment: A high population will be increased. Education will encourage people to make
increase the number of unemployed people and thus intelligent decisions on family planning. Provision of
increase the number of dependants who will pressurise information and counseling regarding abortion,
the working population’s budget. Unemployment will sterilisation, HIV/AIDS and STDs should be availed to
also give rise to social ills such as prostitution, crime people in both towns and villages.
and street children. The government’s budget will be
overstretched as it will be forced to support destitutes.  Legislation and strict government policies : The
government can formulate some laws on maximum
 Shortage of basic amenities: A high population will number of children that a couple should have. Early
put pressure on limited schools, clinics and hospitals. marriage should be discouraged to prevent early
The number of teachers, doctors and nurses may not be childbearing which generally results in high fertility
enough to satisfy the needs of the high population. The rate.
government will have to provide more health and
educational facilities which may lead to reduced  Incentives for smaller families: Small sized families
investment in other important economic sectors such as should be given rewards so as to discourage large
agriculture and manufacturing. families e.g. in China the government supports all those

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 couples that have only one child by offering free Impacts of HIV/AIDS on the population
services such education and medical aid to the child.
One of the most significant factors affecting world’s population
 Education: All people especially women should be today is the alarming spread of HIV/AIDS related illnesses. As
educated about the dangers of a high population. there is not yet a cure for AIDS, it remains a fatal disease and
Educated women are likely to marry later and have anyone who contracts it is likely to die. HIV/AIDS is a disease
fewer children through wise planning and proper use of that affects the body’s immune system making it vulnerable to
contraceptives. multiple infections including those that the immune system
would prevent under normal conditions. HIV/AIDS has serious
 Development of rural areas: To reduce population implications for governments all over the world because of the
growth due to migration all regions should be following:
developed equally. There is need to provide basic
amenities such as schools, hospitals, roads and Loss of active and working population: The disease mostly
telecommunication networks in rural areas so as to attacks people aged between 18 and 45. This age group forms
reduce accelerated rural-urban migration. The the core of the working population and this consequently leads
government should make policies that will encourage to a decline in the workforce. The early and unexpected deaths
industries to locate in rural areas such as tax holidays, lead to reduced productivity and manpower at the workplace.
subsidies and allowances for civil servants who work in Most the manpower has been trained at the expense of
rural areas. government which means that it incurs some losses and it also
 Emancipation of women’s rights (gender equality): has to train other personnel to replace those killed by AIDS. A
Equality for women is very important; women who lot of time spent on looking for medication and on sick leave
have high social and economic opportunities tend to has serious negative impacts on productivity.
have fewer children than those of lower status.
Improved status of women will make them take part in Increase in death rate: The structure of the population and its
decision-making concerning family size unlike in the growth rate continue to be altered as a result of the HIV/AIDS
past when that decision was taken by men only. epidemic. Mortality across all age groups is on the rise and life
expectancy has declined. It is estimated that by 2010 life
expectancy could drop to as low as 29 years. In Botswana the
epidemic has overtaken other fatal diseases and road accidents
as the major cause of deaths. High deaths for middle-aged

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people also results in a high proportion of young and very old Importance of population census
population.
A population census is an official counting of people in a
Pressure on government budget: The nation’s health system country at a given period of time. The first Population and
is being stretched to the limit and an increasing large Housing Census was taken in Bechuanaland Protectorate in
proportion of the sector’s resources are now being devoted to 1904 by the British Government. The United Nations (UN)
the care of AIDS patients. A lot of money is used by recommended that member states should conduct a census
government to buy preventive medication such as ARV drugs every ten years with a year ending with zero or one. Botswana
and this consequently leads to reduced investment in other as a member of UN decided to conduct its census every year
economic sectors and ignorance of other fatal diseases such as ending with one. Censuses are held every ten years to update
malaria, cancer and hepatitis. the statistical data as population characteristics such as birth
rate, death rate, and density are dynamic. A census is important
Loss of breadwinners: Some families may lose very important for the following reasons:
people leading to their collapse. Loss of breadwinners may
result in poverty and increased number of orphans who mainly - enables identification of changes in the structure of
end up as street children. With growing number of children population (e.g. birth rate, death rate, life expectancy
either infected or affected, school enrolments are expected to etc.) as well as causes for such changes
decline due to dropouts, increased illness, or children having to
care for family members. Those who remain in the classroom, - census data is needed for planning in various social and
seeing teachers and friends affected, are traumatised and suffer economic sectors such as agriculture, health and
a decreased ability to learn. education. For example, knowledge of age and number
of children in a particular village may be used to project
Stigma and discrimination: The family has to cope with the how many classrooms will be needed in the village and
stigma of the virus and victims might isolate themselves from how many teachers in the next five or more years.
major family and community activities. The stigma also entails
negative implications on the mental status of the individual as - In elections census data helps in delimitation of
well as the family. Stigma and denial create an environment for parliamentary constituencies and councilors’ wards.
potential increased infection as well as limiting the ability of This prevents a situation whereby one electoral
people to live positively and responsibly with HIV and AIDS. constituency can have too many electorates whilst
others have very few.

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 - A census can be used to identify where various information regarding the population projections or estimates
developments are mostly needed. Usually such for the future. In Botswana development planning is done
developments and services are mostly needed where every 5 years.
there are more people. Knowledge of population size in Development plans are done for the following reasons:
a particular village or town will also determine how big
the amenities should be. For budgeting purposes: the government has to know how
much money would be required by each sector and each
Significance of population and development planning constituency. This is done by using census data which will
enable planners to determine the needs of each sector.
A country’s development is affected by population variables
such as size, composition, fertility rate, mortality rate, density For prioritizing development funds: this enables the
and spatial distribution. A large population may be government to know where resources are needed most.
advantageous as it provides a large pool of labour for different
activities. This will increase competition for jobs and as a Population Policy
result the most qualified people will succeed in gaining This refers to government’s decisions and measures which are
employment. Such education will also encourage many people intended to change the characteristics of population such as its
to take their education seriously. size, growth rate, composition, spatial distribution etc. In
countries that are underpopulated their population policies aim
Furthermore, a large population increases market for locally at increasing population growth rate. Most policies in
produced items and this is an advantage to local businessmen. developing countries are generally meant to reduce population
On the other hand a large population may create too much growth rate.
pressure on resources such as water, housing and limit access Importance of population policy
to education and health opportunities. A country whose  A controlled population will ensure a balance between
population is dominated by the young and the very old has to population and available resources
spend a lot of money providing them with services such as  It would permit future population projections which are
education, health, and old age pension. The 2001 census shows needed for development planning and thus help in
that 36.7 % of population in Botswana is below the age of 15 prioritising developmental funds/projects.
years.  A population policy would lead to an increase/decrease in
population because relevant measures such as family
Planning takes a very long time thus how the country will be planning, sterilisation, marriage age etc. will be put in
developed requires planners to have all the necessary place.

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 Relevant legislation will be put in place so as to help The efforts by government to reduce population growth rate
population regulation e.g. In child per couple in China. include the following:
 It enables all stakeholders to work towards a common goal
e.g. government, private institutions and NGOs will put in Education: Government has introduced topics such as
place similar measures towards a common goal of either ‘Population’ and Family Planning in the school curriculum to
increasing or decreasing population growth rate. sensitive people about the impacts of a high population.
Educated people usually have smaller families, and educated
Population Policy in Botswana women not only have smaller families, but they are able to give
The governments of majority of countries in the developing their children better food and health. Also, infant mortality rate
world have agreed that there is critical need to slow down rapid among educated women is lower than that of uneducated
growth of population. The program of action issued by the women.
United Nations International Conference on Population and
Development in 1994 stated that: Women Empowerment (gender-equality): The status of
“Population-related goals and policies are integral parts women has been improved so that they cannot be seen only as
of cultural, economic and social development” childbearers. In recent years women have been given more
Developing countries have adopted national population policies rights and job opportunities and this has reduced their fertility
so that their people can gain the benefits of development. The rates.
rapid growing rates of population of developing countries
today are causing the number of people to rise faster than Family planning and use of contraceptives: Health
economic growth and thus development and population growth institutions such as hospitals and clinics have been improved so
need to be tackled together. Botswana’s population policy aims as to raise the standard of living and increase access to better
at maintaining a balance between population and resources. and safe methods of birth control. Through family planning
Botswana’s population is characterised by high birth rates and education the government tries to encourage teenagers to delay
high dependant populations. The money gained in Botswana’s parenthood, men and women to use contraceptives and parents
fast growing economy is used to cater for the rapid growing to have only the number of children that they can support.
population by providing more schools, hospitals, housing and
clean water. This reduces investment and promotion of other Improved health and family care: If clean water, sewage
economic sectors. Having realised the problem of a rapid disposal, adequate nutrition, medical services, maternity and
growing population, the government of Botswana has come up infant care, and immunization programmes are introduced,
with several strategies to contain the rapid growing population. fewer children will die in infancy. People will then see no need
to have many children as security.

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Decentralisation: To reduce population growth due to Internal migration- Movement of people from one place to
migration government has made efforts to develop rural areas another within a country. Internal migration can take the
so that they match urban areas in terms of infrastructure and following forms:
services. The government has made efforts to balance regional
development through tax rebates and subsidies for industries Rural-rural
that locate in rural areas. Remote Area Service Allowance Rural-urban
(RASA) also makes rural areas attractive to civil servants. Urban-urban
Urban-rural
Increased employment opportunity: Better employment
opportunities will ensure money for the people and will give In any migration there are pull and push factors. Pull factors
them more security. As people become wealthier they will see are favorable conditions which attract people to a new area and
no reason to have so many children as security for old age. usually lead to voluntary migration. Push factors are
unfavorable conditions which force people to a new area and
Maternity leave policy: According to government labour usually lead to involuntary migration. In Botswana the
policies women can take three months leave on full payment commonest form of internal migration is rural to urban. People
for a maximum of three children only. Beyond three children move from rural to urban areas for the following reasons:
women are not paid full salaries. This acts as a deterrent for
working women to have many children. Pull factors:

Population Migration Employment opportunities: Urban areas are more developed

than rural areas and offer better chances of employment. There
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another is a belief that there are better paying jobs in urban areas and
either permanently or temporarily. Migration is one of the therefore people look down upon jobs in rural areas in favour
factors contributing to rapid population growth of certain areas. of those in urban areas.
However migration does not contribute to rapid growth of
world population but contributes to distribution of world Educational facilities: Most of the secondary and tertiary
populations. There are two types of migration: schools are in urban areas and therefore people migrate to
urban areas in search of further education.
International migration: This is the movement of people
from one country to another e.g. from Botswana to South
Africa.

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Good medical facilities: Many referral hospitals in the country rural areas’ economies and therefore if rains are
are found in towns and cities e.g. Nyangabwe and Princess inadequate there are poor harvests and finally
Marina Hospitals in Francistown and Gaborone respectively. starvation. The entire population suffers leading
 ‘Bright light syndrome’: Some people are to involuntary migration.
attracted by the unique lifestyle of towns such as  Poor medical and educational facilities: Rural
going to night clubs, parties and other areas usually have little health posts or clinics
recreational activities. Some people associate which may not offer all services leading to
town life with sophistication and therefore by referral of some patients to hospitals in urban
moving to towns they want to be seen as areas. Frequent referral may lead to permanent
sophisticated. migration to urban areas. Tertiary schools may
 Better infrastructure: Urban areas have good also be available in urban areas only; those who
roads, telecommunication networks and a want to further their studies would have to
variety of shops. relocate to urban and major settlements.
 Fear of witchcraft: Traditional beliefs like
Push factors witchcraft may drive some people away from
 Poor infrastructure in rural areas: Rural rural areas to urban areas with the hope that they
areas are characterised by untarred roads, cannot be reached by witches.
limited and often too expensive shops, poor
telecommunication network etc. These factors Reasons for unforced migration
often force people to migrate to urban areas for  Marriage
better facilities and services.  Holiday
 Unemployment: Rural areas offer the least  Higher standard of living
employment opportunities as they are not as  Further education
developed as urban areas. In rural areas most  Medical treatment
people are engaged in small scale agriculture  Visiting friends and relatives
which is unreliable because of poor rainfall. On
the other hand urban areas are more
industrialized and offer better employment
prospects. Effects of rural-urban migration on rural areas
 Unreliable and inadequate rainfall: Positive effects
Subsistence farming is the backbone of many

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 Remittances: Migrants employed in urban areas send
part of their earnings to relatives left behind in rural Negative impacts
areas. This gives families in rural areas a chance to buy  Brain-drain: The most intelligent people migrate to
basic needs such as food, clothes and other household towns leaving rural areas with people who are less
items. In some cases this is the only real source of educated or intelligent enough to initiate and implement
income for rural families. important development projects.
 Transfer of skills, ideas and technology: Migrant  Unequal distribution of resources: Migration will
workers bring in new skills and technology that they increase population in urban areas and as a result
have acquired in urban areas. This knowledge may be development and resources will be channeled towards
used to stimulate development of rural areas e.g. the urban areas at the expense of rural areas. This will
formation youth clubs, cash loans and business widen the inequality between rural and urban areas in
syndicates. Such developments may also deter other terms of basic facilities and infrastructure.
people from migrating to urban areas.  Family breakdown: Migration may lead to separation
 Reduced pressure on available resources: Those rural of marital partners for prolonged periods of time. One
areas that are overpopulated may benefit from rural- partner may leave for urban areas and lose contact with
urban migration as their populations may be reduced his/her spouse and this may result in extra marital
leaving behind a smaller population which can be affairs and finally divorce. Absence of one partner
supplied adequately by the available resources. This especially the father may also disrupt family life
may contribute towards sustaining both the natural and because discipline of children is usually done by
manmade resources. fathers. Absence of the father may make some children
 Investment of income in rural areas: Migrants may to be defiant especially boys.
invest their income in rural areas e.g. by building shops,  Decline in economic activities: As able-bodied men
running public transports, entertainment centres, and women migrate to towns for greener pastures much
opening saloons and other businesses. Such business of the workload is left in the hands of the young and
will also contribute a lot in providing employment very old. This reduces productivity especially
opportunities for other rural dwellers. agricultural production as it is the backbone of rural
 Reduced family sizes: The relocation of some family economy.
members leads to reduction in the size of the family  Age and gender imbalance: Rural migration tends to
which may mean fewer mouths to feed. This reduction leave rural areas with a population dominated by
in size may also lead to reduction in family conflicts females as well as the young and old. This results in
which are more prevalent amongst large families. change in division of labour. The production of food

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 from tilling to cooking is left entirely in the hands of unskilled labour to upgrade their educational
females. Some women often end up doing masculine qualifications.
jobs such as destumping and fencing the fields. This  Exchange of skills and technology: Interaction of
may also lead to collapse of agricultural production. people from different cultural and ethnic grounds may
 Depopulation: Accelerated rural-urban migration may facilitate exchange of skills and technology. Such skills
result in the decline of the population of rural areas. may be needed for production of various goods in urban
Reduction in population may also mean reduction in areas.
labour force and market. Some businesses may end up
collapsing due to shortage of market whilst others may Negative effects
relocate to places that offer better market prospects.  Shortage of amenities: A high population will exert
 Spread of diseases: Interaction between migrants and tremendous pressure on basic amenities such schools,
permanent rural dwellers may result in spread of clinics and hospitals. More schools and hospitals will
contagious diseases from urban areas to the rural areas. have to be built to cater for the ever increasing urban
Urban areas are home to people from diverse cultural population. Congestion in schools and hospitals will
groups and nationalities and hence prone to numerous also compromise the quality of services provided by
contagious diseases which may be spread to rural areas teachers, nurses and doctors.
by migrants.  Depletion of natural resources: Increased urban
population will lead to pressure and overuse of
Effects of rural-urban migration on urban areas resources such as land, water and food. Some urban
Positive effects dwellers are still highly dependent on natural resources
 Increased market: As many people migrate to urban such as fuelwood. Increased demand for fuelwood
areas urban population increases and this increases would result in degradation of the land due to
potential buyers especially for local products such as deforestation and soil erosion.
fruits, vegetables, dairy products, meat etc.  Rise in unemployment: Job opportunities are not
 Increased labour force: An increased urban rising as fast as urban population growth rate. Many of
population will lead to plenty of labour force with a the urban people may not find employment or may be
variety of skills. This may benefit industries as they will employed in unstable sources of employment such as
have a large pool of labour to choose from. Competition construction whereas others may be engaged in
for employment will ensure that only the most skilled unprofitable petty trading. Failure to find employment
people find employment and this will motivate the may lead to illegal and anti-social sources of income
such as crime and prostitution.

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 Establishment of squatter settlements: Shortage of
housing or unaffordable rent prices may force people to Effects of international migration on the source country
establish illegal squatter camps or slums. In these Positive
settlements houses are shacks made up of available  Reduced pressure on available resources as many
materials such as plastic sheets. Services such as water people migrate
and garbage collection may not be available hence the  Gaining of foreign exchange as migrants send
area is generally untidy. remittances in foreign currencies
 Pressure on government budget: Due to high  Returning migrants may bring in new skills and
population government will be forced to provide basic technology vital for development
services such schools, hospitals, roads,  Investments by migrants in their home countries may
telecommunication networks etc. to majority of people stimulate economic development.
who live in urban areas. This reduces investment on Negative
other economic sectors such as tourism and  Brain drain- the country may lose skilled manpower to
manufacturing. other countries.
 Multiplication of diseases: High urban population may  Loss of active population leading to reduction in
lead to various environmental problems such as productivity.
pollution. Many of the most serious diseases in urban  Poor developments due to shortage of skilled personnel.
areas are ‘environmental’ because they are transmitted  Starvation due to mass exodus of breadwinners.
through disease causing agents (pathogens) in the air,  Family breakdown as some members never return.
water, soil or food, or through insects or animal disease
vectors. Many diseases and disease vectors multiply Effects of international migration on the receiving country
when provision of water, sanitation, drainage, garbage Positive
collection and health is inadequate. Other contagious  Acquisition of skilled manpower such as engineers and
diseases such as tuberculosis may be spread quite easily doctors.
due high population.  Abundance of labour which is a benefit to local
 Land use conflicts: Rapid growth of urban areas may industries.
lead to loss of agricultural land to housing or  Increased markets for local products.
establishment of more industries. This will create  Exchange of cultural knowledge which facilitates
conflicts between the affected farmers and the Town exchange of skills and technology.
Council or Land Board. Some farmers may be reluctant Negative
to abandon their lands or demand huge compensation.

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  Loss of culture by immigrants as they interact with within this age group mostly migrate to seek senior
other cultures. secondary and tertiary education. Most of the tertiary
 Increased social ills as some of the immigrants may not institutions in Botswana are found in urban areas and as
find jobs e.g. Zimbabweans in Botswana are such students who perform well in secondary schools
blamed for escalating crime and prostitution. are forced to migrate to urban areas to further their
 Spread of diseases from other countries e.g. HIV-AIDS, education
SARS and Ebola.  Destination: Most of the rural migrants target specific
 Increased pressure on manmade and natural resources urban areas such as mining towns like Selibe Phikwe,
such housing and water. Jwaneng, Sowa Town and Francistown. In recent
 Competition for limited job opportunities with the local decades Gaborone as the administrative capital has
people attracted the largest number of both local and
international migrants. Gaborone offers the best
The trend of rural urban migration employment opportunities as it is home to all
This refers to the general tendency or direction of rural-urban government ministries, prominent NGOs and private
migration. A large volume of people migrate from rural to institutions that employ thousands of people.
urban areas and the migration is selective in the following
ways: Is there a change in the trend?
 Sex: Both men and women migrate equally for different In some parts of the country there is still a massive movement
reasons; men mostly go to towns for better jobs so that of people from villages to towns but in most parts of the
they can support their families in rural areas. During the country most of the movement is within the districts. This is
colonial period it was mostly men who migrated to the mainly because the government has embarked on
mines in South Africa especially after the introduction decentralization and thus most districts have their own
of hut tax. Nowadays females also move to towns and headquarters which are developed. Due to decentralisation
for the same reasons as men such as better employment people have access to a lot of facilities because they are within
opportunities. Males usually migrate to mining towns considerable distance and therefore see no reason for
such as Selibe Phikwe, Jwaneng, Orapa and Sowa migrating.
town.
 Age: Most of the people who migrate are aged between The role of stakeholders in addressing problems resulting
15 and 45 (working age). This age group is the core of from rural-urban migration
the working population and they mostly migrate to seek a. Youth
better employment opportunities. Younger people

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 Self employment: the youth can initiate their own They can also volunteer to work for various NGOs that
businesses in rural areas such as bakeries, saloons, provide services to rural people such as Red Cross.
poultry farming and tourism related projects. This will  Active participation in decision making: The youth
bring income for the youth, create employment for can actively take part in major decision making in their
other youths, speed up development of the rural area communities so that they can advocate for the
and finally reduce the rate of rural urban migration. improvement of their lifestyles. They can also
 Formation of cultural and entertainment clubs: campaign for positions of responsibility such being
Rural dwellers can form clubs such as traditional dance councilors and members of parliament.
troupes e.g. Ditholwana and drama clubs to keep
culture existing. Drama clubs can also educate people
about the negative consequences of migration through b. Government
plays. Apart from entertaining and educating these To reduce accelerated rural-urban migration there is need to
clubs can also raise funds for other development develop rural areas so that they become as attractive as urban
activities. Through these clubs the youth can also learn areas. This can be done in the following ways:
managerial and leadership skills that will benefit them  Provision of clean water: A clean and reliable supply
as they grow up. of water in rural areas will reduce migration and
 Formation of sporting clubs: The youth can form frequency of diseases especially cholera, malaria and
different sporting clubs such as football teams and bilharzias.
organise tournaments. Such tournaments will help to  Encourage more industries to locate in rural areas:
address the boredom that is normally associated with This can be achieved government policies such as
rural areas. The teams will also act as a deterrent for subsidies and tax rebates for industries that locate in
bad behaviour among the youth. rural areas.
 Utilisation of government schemes: The youth can  Increase recreational facilities in rural areas: Lack
take advantage of CEDA and Department of Culture of entertainment is one of the push factors of rural
and Youth to start their own businesses in rural areas. urban migration and as such provision of entertainment
Such businesses will also speed up development and facilities in rural areas will help make rural areas lees
generate employment for other people who would boring e.g. establishment of stadiums and youth centres
otherwise migrate to towns to seek employment. in major villages.
 Voluntary service: Unemployed youth can take part in  Improvement of basic infrastructure: There is need
voluntary services such being members of Village to develop roads and telecommunication networks so as
Development Committees and Drought Relief Projects. to improve linkage between rural areas and urban areas.

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  Establishment of social welfare facilities: An increase rural people so that they cannot be ill-treated e.g.
in the number of social services will encourage more Survival International and Ditshwanelo.
people to live in rural areas e.g. housing, schools, post
offices, banks, shops etc. Causes of conflict over the use of natural resources
 Education: rural people need to be taught about the  Overpopulation: Population increase has
negative consequences of migration. This can be done led to people exceeding available resources
through kgotla meetings, workshops and through the and this can put pressure on land, water and
media. fuelwood etc. Shortage of land has led to
 Balancing of skilled manpower across all regions: establishment of settlements in areas that are
Skilled manpower can be equally spread and rotated reserved for agricultural purposes. This
across the country so that all regions can benefit. There creates conflict over land-use between
is a tendency by some civil servants to refuse to work in wildlife and local communities e.g. the
remote and distant villages such as Seronga and people of Khutse Game Reserve and the
Kachikau. Government has introduced Remote Area people of old Xade in CKGR. As a result of
Service Allowance (RASA) to those civil servants who population increase people have always
work in remote areas. The aim of this allowance is to been relocated to other areas in order to
encourage people to work in rural areas. preserve the natural habitat. Relocation of
people has not always been welcomed as
c. Non Governmental Orgaisations other people tend to fight for their ancestral
 Education: They can conduct kgotla meetings and land. A good example is the 2005 legal case
seminars to educate people about the effects of between people of Xade who were forcibly
migration. removed from CKGR and the government of
 Provisions of basic needs: Some NGOs like Red Cross Botswana.
often donate clothes, food, shelter and medicine to poor  Increased demand for fuelwood: Some
rural dwellers. people especially in rural areas are still
 Creation of jobs: Some NGOs have branches in rural heavily dependent on firewood as a major
areas and this helps in terms of development and source of heat energy despite the
creating employment. countrywide campaign to promote use of
 Represent the interests of rural dwellers: Some coal and other environmentally friendly
international and local NGOs advocate for the rights of sources of energy like electricity and solar
power. In some instances some people cut

17
 live plants and allow them to dry before often arise between the squatters and the
harvesting them for firewood. This creates a land board or town council. Squatting is
conflict between environmental illegal therefore squatters are removed by
conservationists and those who harvest force.
fuelwood.  Management of wild animals and other
 Establishment of mines: Minerals may be land uses: There have been several conflicts
discovered in agricultural lands and this may arising from the use of land especially
create conflicts with farmers who are between farming communities and wildlife.
consequently relocated to other areas to pave Wild animals like lions, hyenas and leopards
way for mining. The government has to often kill domesticated animals and destroy
spend money in resettlement and people’s property and lives. Also, roads
compensation for such people. Some people often pass through game reserves and
often refuse to be relocated whilst others national parks and this endangers the lives
claim ownership of the minerals discovered of motorists and wild animals. The
in their areas. government only provides little
 Industrialisation: Having many industries compensation for these losses and at times
has resulted in various forms of pollution. there might be no compensation and hence
The environment is being polluted by conflicts may arise.
industries which are only interested in profit
making. As a result of this environmentalists
are campaigning to protect the natural
resources. Some industries discharge toxic
wastes which may be washed into nearby Ways of resolving conflicts arising from the use of scarce
streams and threaten the lives of aquatic resources by various stakeholders.
plants and animals. Industries may also
discharge harmful gases into the atmosphere a. Government
e.g. BCL mine releases sulphur dioxide into
the atmosphere and this has negative effects -Legislation: The government should formulate laws that
on plants and animals. Urbanisation has also protect the natural environment e.g. firewood collection as well
led to establishment of squatter camps which as the law on harvesting of veld products such as thatching
are not environmentally friendly. Conflicts grass and phane.

18
-Strict government policies: Enforce anti-pollution laws and
punish those individuals or organizations that pollute the
environment. The government should also be strict on land-use
i.e. any individual or organisation which does not use land
according to its function should be quickly removed and
penalised.
-Education: Government should educate communities through
workshops and kgotla meetings about the importance of
resources and the need to preserve them.
-Negotiation and consultation: Government should consult or
work hand in hand with other stakeholders in order to find a
common solution to environmental issues. There should be a
consensus between government and the concerned parties.

b. Community
- Form more clubs or organizations that campaign
against environmental mismanagement
- Educate the public about conservation through
conducting workshops and seminars.
- Advise the government on environmental issues and
assist in formulation of policies.

c. Private Sector
- More investment in conservation
- Sponsor educational workshops and activities concerned with
environmental conservation
- Assist the government in formulation of policies.

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