UNIT 1

Introduction to Computer
In the modern era, computers are an essential part of our everyday existence.
That means computers are present in almost every field, making our day-to-
day tasks easier and faster. Nowadays, computers can be seen in banks, shops,
schools, hospitals, railways, and many more places, including our home. As
they are such an essential part of our lives, we must know about the basic
computer introduction. Let us start with defining the computer first:

What is a Computer?
The straightforward meaning of a computer is a machine that can calculate.
However, modern computers are not just a calculating device anymore. They
can perform a variety of tasks. In simple terms, a computer is a programmable
electronic machine used to store, retrieve, and process data.

According to the definition, "A computer is a programmable electronic

device that takes data, perform instructed arithmetic and logical
operations, and gives the output."

Whatever is given to the computer as input is called 'data', while the output
received after processing is called 'information'.

A Brief History of Computer

The term 'Computer' was first introduced in 1640 and referred to as 'one who
calculates'. It was derived from the Latin word 'computare', which meant 'to
calculate'. In 1897, it was known as the 'calculating machine'. Later in 1945, the
term 'computer' was introduced as 'programmable digital electronic
computer, which is now called a 'computer'.

When the computers were introduced, they were large and could fill an entire
room. Some computers were operated using large-sized vacuum tubes. In
1833, Charles Babbage (known as the father of the computer) invented an
early calculator, which was named as the 'difference engine'. Later in 1837, he
introduced the first mechanical, general-purpose computer 'Analytical
Engine'. Over time, computers became powerful in performance and small in
size.

Generations of Computer
There are five generations of the computer, which can be classified as below:

First Generation (1946 - 1959): During the first generation, computers were
based on electronic valves (Vacuum Tubes). Some popular computers of first-
generation are ENIAC, EDVAC, UNIVAC, etc.

Second Generation (1959 - 1965): During the second generation, computers

were based on Transistors. Some popular computers of second-generation are
IBM 1400, IBM 1620, IBM 7000 series, etc.

Third Generation (1965 - 1971): During the third generation, computers

were based on Integrated Circuits (ICs). Some popular computers of the
third generation are IBM 360, IBM 370, PDP, etc.

Fourth Generation (1971 - 1980): During the fourth generation, computers

were based on very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits. Some popular
computers of fourth-generation are STAR 1000, CRAY-1, CRAY-X-MP, DEC 10,
etc.

Fifth Generation (1980 - Present): The fifth generation is still ongoing. The
computers are based on multiple technologies, such as ultra large scale
integration (ULSI), artificial intelligence (AI), and parallel processing
hardware. The fifth generation of computers includes Desktop, Laptop,
NoteBook, etc.

Computer Software and Hardware

Software
Computer Software is a group of instructions or programs that instructs the
computer system to work accordingly. There are mainly two types of software:
System Software: System software help establish communication between
hardware components so that the user can interact with the computer. These
types of software are necessary for the computer to operate correctly. They
provide an interface to run additional third party programs or utility tools.
Operating systems, drivers, utility software, and firmware are typical examples
of the system software.

Application Software: Application software is designed to help users to

perform specific tasks, such as online surfing, setting the alarm, listening to
music, playing videos, photo designing, editing, etc. This type of software
mostly runs in the frontend and allows end-users to work on. Web browsers,
Photoshop software, multimedia software and word processors are the
example of the application software.

Hardware
The physical parts attached to a computer that form a whole computer are
called hardware

or hardware components. There can be different types of hardware,

depending on the structure. Some most common hardware are mouse,
Keyboard, Monitor & Printer etc. These are the parts that can be seen and
touched by humans.
Basic Parts of Computer
The essential components of the computer can be defined as follows:

Input Unit: Input Units or devices are used to input the data or instructions
into the computers. Some most common input devices are mouse and
keyword.

Output Unit: Output Units or devices are used to provide output to the user
in the desired format. The most popular examples of output devices are the
monitor and the printer.

Control Unit: As its name states, this unit is primarily used to control all the
computer functions and functionalities. All the components or devices
attached to a computer interact with each other through the control unit. In
short, the control unit is referred to as 'CU'.

Arithmetic Logic Unit: The arithmetic logic unit helps perform all the
computer system's arithmetic and logical operations. In short, the arithmetic
logic unit is referred to as 'ALU'.

Memory: Memory is used to store all the input data, instructions, and output
data. Memory usually has two types: Primary Memory and Secondary
Memory.

The memory found inside the CPU is called the primary Memory, where as the
memory that is not the integral part of the CPU is called Secondary Memory.

Note: Control Unit, arithmetic logic unit, and the memory simultaneously form the
central processing unit (called CPU in short).
Functions of Computer
There are four core functions of the computer, as explained below:

Input: Whatever is given to a computer is called the input. The input data is
given to the computer using the input devices. The computer only takes data
in a binary form (raw format). The input devices help convert the entered data
in the binary form to be understandable by the computer. Data can be
inputted in various forms, such as letters, numbers, images, etc.

Processing: Processing is the primary function of the computer. CPU helps to

process the data according to the instructions entered into the computer
system. The processing of data is an internal process of the computer system,
and the data is executed in a queue. After the processing has been completed,
the data is further transferred as the output. The processor (CPU) is the
computer's brain, and it is a microchip. The processor's speed varies in
different computers because it depends on several factors, such as the type of
CPU, memory, and motherboard.

Typically, the following operations are performed on the data during the
processing:

o Arithmetic Operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,

differentials, square root, etc.
o Logical Operations, such as equal to, not equal to, greater than, less
than, opposite, etc.

Output: Anything that comes out from the computer is called the output. It is
the human-readable data and displayed on the computer screen (monitor).
Output can be stored in the storage devices if desired. The output devices
help convert the processed data of the CPU into the human-understandable
form.

Storage: The device used to store the data of a computer system is called the
storage. Storage devices help to store digital data. They can store the data
while the computer is operating and after processing. There are volatile and
non-volatile storage options. The volatile storage can store the data as long as
the power source is connected, whereas non-volatile can store the data
permanently even after the power source is disconnected.
Characteristics of Computer
The essential characteristics of the computer make it such an important part
of human lives. Let's understand the basic characteristics of computers:

Speed: Computers are a high-speed electronic machine. They can carry

around 3-4 million instruction per second. Even advanced computers can
handle trillions of instructions per second, cutting down the time to perform
any digital tasks.

Accuracy: Computers are also known for their accurate performance. They can
complete the given jobs at almost 100% accuracy. Although errors may occur
in computers, they are usually caused by incorrect input, incorrect instructions,
or bugs in chips. All of these are human errors.

Storage Capacity: Computers can easily store a massive size of data. Modern
computers come inbuilt with high storage features compared to older days.
Additional data can be stored on secondary devices like external hard disks, or
flash memory, etc. Due to incredible speed, data can be retrieved from storage
in no time.

Reliability: Computers are reliable and consistent; they can process the same
tasks any number of times without throwing any error. Computers don't get
tired like humans, so they are superior to perform rule-based, repetitive tasks.

Versatility: The variety of tasks that a computer can perform are almost
infinite. That means computers can perform different tasks back to back
without making errors; they are no longer just a computing machine. For one
moment, a computer can be used to perform data entry tasks or ticket
booking, and the very next moment, it can be used for complex mathematical
calculations or continuous astronomical observations, etc.

Classification of Computer
According to physical size, computers are classified into the following types:

Supercomputer: Supercomputers are the fastest and the most expensive type
of computer. They are large and require more space for installation. These
types of computers are mainly designed to perform massive data-based and
complex tasks. Supercomputers are capable enough to handle trillions of
instructions at the same time.

Mainframe Computer: Mainframe computers are comparatively smaller in

size as compared to supercomputers. However, they are not much small.
These types of computers are designed to perform hundreds or thousands of
jobs at a time simultaneously. These computers can handle heavy tasks,
including complex calculations and can store vast amounts of data. They are
best suited for big organizations such as banking, telecom, and educational
sectors.

Microcomputer: Microcomputers are cheap in price and support multi-user

platform. These are the general-purpose computers designed to handle all the
necessary tasks of individual needs. Since they are comparatively slower than
mainframe computers, thereby are suitable for small organizations. They are
best suited for internet café, schools, universities, offices, etc. A
microcomputer is also referred to as the 'Personal Computer (PC)' in general
life. Laptop and desktop are examples of microcomputers.

Minicomputer: Minicomputers are also referred to as Mainframe computers.

These are the midsize multiprocessing computer designed purposely for easy
carry. These types of computers are light-weight and can fit in a small space.
They are suitable for billing, accounting, education, and business purposes.
Since these minicomputers are easy to carry, they are the best option for
those who need a computer while travelling. Tablet PC, Notebooks, and cell
phones are examples of minicomputers.

Workstation: Workstation is a powerful, single-user computer. A workstation

is a personal computer with a faster microprocessor, a massive amount of
RAM, higher-quality monitors, high graphic memory, etc. This is best suited
for performing any specific type of task professionally. According to the type
of tasks, a workstation can be referred to as a music workstation, graphic
workstation, or engineering design workstation. Most businesses and
professionals use workstations for performing tasks like animation, music
creation, video editing, poster designs, data analysis and more.

Advantages of Using Computer

The following are the main advantages of using the computer:

o Computers can perform given tasks at incredible speed.

o Computers can perform the same task multiple times with the same
accuracy.
o Computers allow doing several tasks simultaneously as they are best
suited for multitasking.
o Computers keep the stored data secure and inaccessible from
unauthorized users.
 o Computers can automatically perform routine tasks with automation,
making humans available for more intelligent tasks.

Disadvantages of Using Computer

The following are the main disadvantages of using the computer:

o Computers cannot work on their own. They need instructions from

humans to complete tasks. Moreover, computers follow the given
instructions blindly without thinking about the outcomes.
o Computers need a power supply to work. Without a power supply, they
are just useless.
o Working on a computer continuously for a long period can cause
several health issues.
o Wastage of computers and their parts leave a negative impact on the
environment.
o Computers are taking human jobs in many sectors. They are replacing
human work and thus increasing unemployment.

Computer Components
There are 5 main computer components that are given below:

o Input Devices
o CPU
o Output Devices
o Primary Memory
o Secondary Memory
The operations of computer components are given below:

1) Inputting: It is the process of entering raw data, instructions and

information into the computer. It is performed with the help of input devices.

2) Storing: The computer has primary memory and secondary storage to

store data and instructions. It stores the data before sending it to CPU for
processing and also stores the processed data before displaying it as output.

3) Processing: It is the process of converting the raw data into useful

information. This process is performed by the CPU of the computer. It takes
the raw data from storage, processes it and then sends back the processed
data to storage.

4) Outputting: It is the process of presenting the processed data through

output devices like monitor, printer and speakers.

5) Controlling: This operation is performed by the control unit that is part of

CPU. The control unit ensures that all basic operations are executed in a right
manner and sequence.

Input Devices
Input device enables the user to send data, information, or control signals to a
computer. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer receives the input
and processes it to produce the output.

Some of the popular input devices are:

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Digitizer
7. Microphone
8. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
9. Optical Character Reader (OCR)
10. Digital Camera
 11. Paddle
12. Steering Wheel
13. Gesture recognition devices
14. Light Gun
15. Touch Pad
16. Remote
17. Touch screen
18. VR
19. Webcam
20. Biometric Devices

1) Keyboard
The keyboard is a basic input device that is used to enter data into a computer
or any other electronic device by pressing keys. It has different sets of keys for
letters, numbers, characters, and functions. Keyboards are connected to a
computer through USB or a Bluetooth device for wireless communication.

Types of keyboards: There can be different types of keyboards based on the

region and language used. Some of the common types of keyboards are as
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i) QWERTY Keyboard:

It is the most commonly used keyboard with computers in modern times. It is

named after the first six letters of the top row of buttons and is even popular
in countries that do not use Latin-based alphabet. It is so popular that some
people think that it is the only type of keyboard to use with computers as an
input device.
ii) AZERTY Keyboard:

It is considered the standard French keyboard. It is developed in France as an

alternative layout to the QWERTY layout and is mainly used in France and
other European countries. Some countries have manufactured their own
versions of AZERTY.

Its name is derived from the first six letters that appear on the top left row of
the keyboard. The Q and W keys in AZERTY keyboard are interchanged with A
and Z keys in QWERTY keyboard. Furthermore, in AZERTY keyboard M key is
located to the left of the L key.

AZERTY keyboard differs from QWERTY keyboard not only in the placement of
letters but also in many other ways, e.g., it gives emphasis on accents, which is
required for writing European languages like French.

iii) DVORAK Keyboard:

This type of keyboard layout was developed to increase the typing speed by
reducing the finger movement while typing. The most frequently used letters
are kept in a home row to improve typing.

2) Mouse
The mouse is a hand-held input device which is used to move cursor or
pointer across the screen. It is designed to be used on a flat surface and
generally has left and right button and a scroll wheel between them. Laptop
computers come with a touchpad that works as a mouse. It lets you control
the movement of cursor or pointer by moving your finger over the touchpad.
Some mouse comes with integrated features such as extra buttons to perform
different buttons.

The mouse was invented by Douglas C. Engelbart in 1963. Early mouse had a
roller ball integrated as a movement sensor underneath the device. Modern
mouse devices come with optical technology that controls cursor movements
by a visible or invisible light beam. A mouse is connected to a computer
through different ports depending on the type of computer and type of a
mouse.

Common types of the mouse:

i) Trackball Mouse:

It is a stationary input device that has ball mechanism to move the pointer or
cursor on the screen. The ball is half inserted in the device and can be easily
rolled with finger, thumb or the palm to move the pointer on the screen. The
device has sensor to detect the rotation of ball. It remains stationary; you
don't need to move it on the operating surface. So, it is an ideal device if you
have limited desk space as you don't need to move it like a mouse.

ii) Mechanical Mouse:

It has a system of a ball and several rollers to track its movement. It is a
corded type of mouse. A mechanical mouse can be used for high
performance. The drawback is that they tend to get dust into the mechanics
and thus require regular cleaning.

iii) Optical Mouse:

An optical mouse uses optical electronics to track its movement. It is more

reliable than a mechanical mouse and also requires less maintenance.
However, its performance is affected by the surface on which it is operated.
Plain non-glossy mouse mat should be used for best results. The rough
surface may cause problems for the optical recognition system, and the glossy
surface may reflect the light wrongly and thus may cause tracking issues.

iv) Cordless or Wireless Mouse:

As the name suggests, this type of mouse lacks cable and uses wireless
technology such as IrDA (infrared) or radio (Bluetooth or Wi-Fi) to control the
movement of the cursor. It is used to improve the experience of using a
mouse. It uses batteries for its power supply.
3) Scanner
The scanner uses the pictures and pages of text as input. It scans the picture
or a document. The scanned picture or document then converted into a digital
format or file and is displayed on the screen as an output. It uses optical
character recognition techniques to convert images into digital ones. Some of
the common types of scanners are as follows:

Types of Scanner:

i) Flatbed Scanner:

It has a glass pane and a moving optical CIS or CCD array. The light illuminates
the pane, and then the image is placed on the glass pane. The light moves
across the glass pane and scans the document and thus produces its digital
copy. You will need a transparency adapter while scanning transparent slides.

ii) Handheld Scanner:

It is a small manual scanning device which is held by hand and is rolled over a
flat image that is to be scanned. The drawback in using this device is that the
hand should be steady while scanning; otherwise, it may distort the image.
One of the commonly used handheld scanners is the barcode scanner which
you would have seen in shopping stores.

iii) Sheetfed Scanner:

In this scanner, the document is inserted into the slot provided in the scanner.
The main components of this scanner include the sheet-feeder, scanning
module, and calibration sheet. The light does not move in this scanner.
Instead, the document moves through the scanner. It is suitable for scanning
single page documents, not for thick objects like books, magazines, etc.

iv) Drum Scanner:

Drum scanner has a photomultiplier tube (PMT) to scan images. It does not
have a charge-coupled device like a flatbed scanner. The photomultiplier tube
is extremely sensitive to light. The image is placed on a glass tube, and the
light moves across the image, which produces a reflection of the image which
is captured by the PMT and processed. These scanners have high resolution
and are suitable for detailed scans.

v) Photo Scanner:
It is designed to scan photographs. It has high resolution and color depth,
which are required for scanning photographs. Some photo scanners come
with in-built software for cleaning and restoring old photographs.

4) Joystick

A joystick is also a pointing input device like a mouse. It is made up of a stick

with a spherical base. The base is fitted in a socket that allows free movement
of the stick. The movement of stick controls the cursor or pointer on the
screen.

The first joystick was invented by C. B. Mirick at the U.S. Naval Research
Laboratory. A joystick can be of different types such as displacement joysticks,
finger-operated joysticks, hand operated, isometric joystick, and more. In
joystick, the cursor keeps moving in the direction of the joystick unless it is
upright, whereas, in mouse, the cursor moves only when the mouse moves.

5) Light Pen

A light pen is a computer input device that looks like a pen. The tip of the light
pen contains a light-sensitive detector that enables the user to point to or
select objects on the display screen. Its light sensitive tip detects the object
location and sends the corresponding signals to the CPU. It is not compatible
with LCD screens, so it is not in use today. It also helps you draw on the screen
if needed. The first light pen was invented around 1955 as a part of the
Whirlwind project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).

6) Digitizer
Digitizer is a computer input device that has a flat surface and usually comes
with a stylus. It enables the user to draw images and graphics using the stylus
as we draw on paper with a pencil. The images or graphics drawn on the
digitizer appear on the computer monitor or display screen. The software
converts the touch inputs into lines and can also convert handwritten text to
typewritten words.

It can be used to capture handwritten signatures and data or images from

taped papers. Furthermore, it is also used to receive information in the form of
drawings and send output to a CAD (Computer-aided design) application and
software like AutoCAD. Thus, it allows you to convert hand-drawn images into
a format suitable for computer processing.

7) Microphone

The microphone is a computer input device that is used to input the sound. It
receives the sound vibrations and converts them into audio signals or sends to
a recording medium. The audio signals are converted into digital data and
stored in the computer. The microphone also enables the user to
telecommunicate with others. It is also used to add sound to presentations
and with webcams for video conferencing. A microphone can capture audio
waves in different ways; accordingly the three most common types are
described below:

i) Dynamic:
It is the most commonly used microphone with a simple design. It has a
magnet which is wrapped by a metal coil and a thin sheet on the front end of
the magnet. The sheet transfers vibrations from sound waves to the coil and
from coil to electric wires which transmit the sound like an electrical signal.

ii) Condenser:

It is designed for audio recording and has a very sensitive and flat frequency
response. It has a front plate called diaphragm and a back plate parallel to the
front plate. When sound hits the diaphragm, it vibrates the diaphragm and
alters the distance between the two plates. The changes in distance are
transmitted as electric signals.

iii) Ribbon:

It is known for its reliability. It has a thin ribbon made of aluminum,

duraluminum, or nanofilm suspended in a magnetic field. The sound waves
cause vibrations in the ribbon, which generate a voltage proportional to the
velocity of the vibration. The voltage is transmitted as an electrical signal. Early
ribbon microphones had a transformer to increase the output voltage, but
modern ribbon microphones come with advanced magnets to produce a
strong signal.

8) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR computer input device is designed to read the text printed with
magnetic ink. MICR is a character recognition technology that makes use of
special magnetized ink which is sensitive to magnetic fields. It is widely used in
banks to process the cheques and other organizations where security is a
major concern. It can process three hundred cheques in a minute with
hundred-percent accuracy. The details on the bottom of the cheque (MICR
No.) are written with magnetic ink. A laser printer with MICR toner can be
used to print the magnetic ink.

The device reads the details and sends to a computer for processing. A
document printed in magnetic ink is required to pass through a machine
which magnetizes the ink, and the magnetic information is then translated
into characters.

9) Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR computer input device is designed to convert the scanned images of
handwritten, typed or printed text into digital text. It is widely used in offices
and libraries to convert documents and books into electronic files.

It processes and copies the physical form of a document using a scanner. After
copying the documents, the OCR software converts the documents into a
two-color (black and white), version called bitmap. Then it is analyzed for light
and dark areas, where the dark areas are selected as characters, and the light
area is identified as background. It is widely used to convert hard copy legal or
historic documents into PDFs. The converted documents can be edited if
required like we edit documents created in ms word.

10) Digital camera:

It is a digital device as it captures images and records videos digitally and then
stores them on a memory card. It is provided with an image sensor chip to
capture images, as opposed to film used by traditional cameras. Besides this, a
camera that is connected to your computer can also be called a digital
camera.

It has photo sensors to record light that enters the camera through the lens.
When the light strikes the photo sensors, each of the sensors returns the
electrical current, which is used to create the images.

11) Paddle:
It is a simple input device that is widely used in games. It is a wheel that is
held by hand and looks like a volume knob on a stereo that is used to increase
or decrease the volume. Paddle moves or controls cursor or any other objects
in the game in a back-and-forth motion. It is widely used as an alternative to
the joystick. Besides this, the term paddle also refers to many handheld
devices designed to control a function in an electronic device, computer, etc.

12) Steering wheel:

It is used as an input device in racing video games such as car racing games or
in driving programs as virtual simulators to steer a vehicle. It works like the
real steering wheel by allowing you to take a right or left turn. A steering
wheel may be provided with acceleration and brake pedal devices and a
mechanism for shifting gears. Thus, it makes racing games more adventurous
and entertaining.

13) Gesture recognition devices:

These devices take human gestures as input. There are many such devices that
respond to gestures. For example, Kinect is one such device that observes the
movement of a player's body and interprets these movements as inputs to
video games. This feature is also available in certain tablets and smartphones
where you can perform certain tasks such as taking pictures using finger
gestures such as swiping, pinching, etc.

14) Light Gun:

As the name suggests, it is a pointing input device that is designed to point at

and shoot the targets on the screen in a video game, or arcade, etc. The light
gun was used for the first time on the MIT Whirwind computer. When the gun
is pointed at the target on the screen and the trigger is pulled, the screen
goes blank for a fraction of a second. During this moment, the photodiode,
which is present in the barrel, determines where the gun is pointed. For
example, shooting ducks in a duck hunt game.

15) Touchpad:

It is usually found in laptops as a substitute for the mouse. It allows you to

move or control the cursor on the screen using your finger. Just like a mouse,
it also has two buttons for right and left click. Using the touchpad, you can
perform all the tasks that you do with a mouse, such as selecting an object on
the screen, copy, paste, delete, open a file or folder, and more.
16) Remote:

It is a hardware device designed to control the functioning of a device, e.g., a

TV remote that can be used to change channels, increase or decrease the
volume, from a distance without leaving the seat. The first cordless TV remote
was invented by Dr. Robert Adler of Zenith in 1956. The remote sends the
electromagnetic waves to communicate with the device. These waves can be
infrared rays, radio waves, etc.

17) Touch screen:

It is the display screen of a device such as a smartphone, tablet, etc., that

allows users to interact or provide inputs to the device by using their finger.
Today, most of the electronic devices come with touchscreen as an alternative
to a mouse for navigating a graphical user interface. For example, by touching,
you can unlock your phone, open emails, open files, play videos, etc. Besides
this, it is used in lots of devices such as Camera, Car GPS, Fitness machine, etc.

The concept of the touch screen was first introduced and published by E.A.
Johnson in 1965. The first touch screen was developed at the beginning of the
1970s by CERN engineers Frank Beck and Bent Stumpe.
18) VR:

VR stands for virtual reality. It is an artificial or virtual environment which is

generated by computers. A person can interact with virtual objects of this
artificial environment using some input devices such as headsets, gloves,
headphones, etc. For example, he or she can find himself or herself walking on
a beach, watching a football match, walking in the sky, etc., without actually
doing all this.

19) Webcam:

Any camera which is connected to a computer is called a webcam. The in-built

camera provided on a computer can also be considered a webcam. It is an
input device as it can take pictures, and can be used to record videos if
required. The pictures and videos are stored in the computer memory and can
be displayed on the screen if required. Although it works almost the same as
the digital camera, it is different from a digital camera, as it is designed to take
compact digital photos that can be uploaded easily on the webpages and
shared with others through the internet.
20) Biometric Devices:
Biometrics refers to a process in which a person is identified through his or her
biological features such as fingerprints, eye cornea, face structure, etc. It is
done by using biometric devices, which can be of different types based on
their scanning features and abilities, such as:

i) Face Scanner:

It is designed to identify a person by scanning his or her face. It takes the face
measurements of a person. For example, the distance between eyes, nose, and
mouth, etc., accordingly, it confirms the identity of a person. Besides this, it is
smart enough to differentiate between a person's picture and the real person.

ii) Hand Scanner:

The hand of a person can also be used to verify his or her identity as every
person has a unique pattern of veins in the palm, just like fingerprints. This
device takes advantage of this feature; it identifies a person by scanning the
palm of his hand. It uses infrared light to scan veins' patterns and blood
flowing in them. Palm is even more unique than fingerprints.
iii) Fingerprint Scanner:

It scans the fingerprints to identify people or for biometric authentication. This

device is developed, keeping in mind the fact that no two persons in the world
can have the same fingerprints. It is widely used in companies as a fingerprint
attendance system to mark the attendance of employees. This type of
scanners captures the pattern of valleys and ridges found on a finger and
store it in the memory or database. When you press your finger on the given
space, it verifies the identity by using its pattern-matching software.

iv) Retina or Iris Scanner:

It scans the retina or iris of a person's eye to confirm the identity. This device
is more secure than others as it is next to impossible to copy the retina or iris.
It works by mapping the retina's blood vessel patterns of the eye. The blood
vessels of retina absorb light more easily as well as can be identified with
appropriate lighting.

In this scan, a beam of low-energy infrared light falls on the retina through the
scanner's eyepiece. Then, the software captures the network of blood vessels
in the retina and uses it to verify a person's identity.

v) Voice Scanner:
It records the voice of a person and digitizes it to create a distinctive voice
print or template. The voiceprints are stored in the database, and are used to
verify the voice of a person to confirm his or her identity. The person is
required to speak in the normal or same voice that was used to create a voice
template. It is not much reliable as it can be misused using a tape recording.

Output Devices
The output device displays the result of the processing of raw data that is
entered in the computer through an input device. There are a number of
output devices that display output in different ways such as text, images, hard
copies, and audio or video.

Some of the popular output devices are:

1. Monitor
o CRT Monitor
o LCD Monitor
o LED Monitor
o Plasma Monitor
2. Printer
o Impact Printers
A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
 o Non-impact printers
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers
3. Projector

1) Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output
device that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio
or video.

The types of monitors are given below.786

History

i) CRT Monitor

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. They are like vacuum tubes
which produce images in the form of video signals. Cathode rays tube
produces a beam of electrons through electron guns that strike on the inner
phosphorescent surface of the screen to produce images on the screen. The
monitor contains millions of phosphorus dots of red, green and blue color.
These dots start to glow when struck by electron beams and this phenomenon
is called cathodoluminescence.

The main components of a CRT monitor include the electron gun assembly,
deflection plate assembly, fluorescent screen, glass envelope, and base. The
front (outer surface) of the screen onto which images are produced is called
the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.
There are three electron beams that strike the screen: red, green, and blue. So,
the colors which you see on the screen are the blends of red, blue and green
[Link] magnetic field guides the beams of electrons. Although LCDs have
replaced the CRT monitors, the CRT monitors are still used by graphics
professionals because of their color quality.

ii) LCD Monitor

The LCD monitor is a flat panel screen that is compact and light-weight as
compared to CRT monitors. It is based on liquid crystal display technology
which is used in the screens of laptops, tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD
screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a liquid crystal solution
between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an electric
current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying
level of light to pass through the second layer to create images on the screen.

The LCD screen has a matrix of pixels that display the image on the [Link]
LCDs had passive-matrix screens in which individual pixels are controlled by
sending a charge. A few electrical charges could be sent each second that
made screens appear blurry when the images moved quickly on the screen.

Modern LCDs use active-matrix technology and contain thin film transistors
(TFTs) with capacitors. This technology allows pixels to retain their charge. So,
they don?t make screen blurry when images move fast on the screen as well
as are more efficient than passive-matrix displays.

iii) LED monitor

The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat
panel display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors.
The difference between them lies in the source of light to backlight the
display. The LED monitor has many LED panels, and each panel has several
LEDs to backlight the display, whereas the LCD monitors use cold cathode
fluorescent light to backlight the display. Modern electronic devices such as
mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc., use a LED display
as it not only produces more brilliance and greater light intensity but also
consumes less power.

iv)Plasma Monitor

The plasma monitor is also a flat panel display that is based on plasma display
technology. It has small tiny cells between two glass panels. These cells
contain mixtures of noble gases and a small amount of mercury. When
voltage is applied, the gas in the cells turns into a plasma and emits ultraviolet
light that creates images on the screen, i.e., the screen is illuminated by a tiny
bit of plasma, a charged gas. Plasma displays are brighter than liquid crystal
displays (LCD) and also offer a wide viewing angle than an LCD.

Plasma monitors provide high resolutions of up to 1920 X 1080, excellent

contrast ratios, wide viewing angle, a high refresh rate and more. Thus, they
offer a unique viewing experience while watching action movies, sports
games, and more.

2) Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to
print images, text or any other information onto the paper.
Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact
Printers and Non-impact Printers.

o Impact Printers: They are of two types:

A. Character Printers
i. Dot Matrix printers
ii. Daisy Wheel printers
B. Line printers
i. Drum printers
ii. Chain printers
o Non-impact printers: They are of two types:
A. Laser printers
B. Inkjet printers

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or
images onto the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink
ribbon against the paper to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types.

A. Character Printers
B. Line printers

A) Character Printers

Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of

the print head or hammer. It does not print one line at a time. Dot Matrix
printer and Daisy Wheel printer are character printers. Today, these printers
are not in much use due to their low speed and because only the text can be
printed. The character printers are of two types, which are as follows:

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images printed by it
are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced by striking the ink
soaked ribbon against the paper with a print head. The print head contains
pins that produce a pattern of dots on the paper to form the individual
characters. The print head of a 24 pin dot matrix contains more pins than a 9
pin dot matrix printer, so it produces more dots which results in better
printing of characters. To produce color output, the black ribbon can be
changed with color stripes. The speed of Dot Matrix printers is around 200-
500 characters per second.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy Wheel Printer was invented by David S. Lee at Diablo Data Systems. It
consists of a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like a daisy,
so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. At the end of extensions, molded metal
characters are mounted. To print a character the printer rotates the wheel, and
when the desired character is on the print location the hammer hits disk and
the extension hits the ink ribbon against the paper to create the impression. It
cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy and slow, i.e., the speed is
very low around 25-50 characters per second. Due to these drawbacks, these
printers have become obsolete.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-
speed impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer
and chain printer are examples of line printers.
i) Drum Printer:

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum to print

characters. The drum has circular bands of characters on its surface. It has a
separate hammer for each band of characters. When you print, the drum
rotates, and when the desired character comes under the hammer, the
hammer strikes the ink ribbon against the paper to print characters. The drum
rotates at a very high speed and characters are printed by activating the
appropriate hammers. Although all the characters are not printed at a time,
they are printed at a very high speed. Furthermore, it can print only a
predefined style as it has a specific set of characters. These printers are known
to be very noisy due to the use of hammering techniques.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to print characters. The
characters are embossed on the surface of the chain. The chain rotates
horizontally around a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is
provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the total number of
print positions.

The chain rotates at a very high speed and when the desired character comes
at the print location, the corresponding hammer strikes the page against the
ribbon and character on the chain. They can type 500 to 3000 lines per
minute. They are also noisy due to the hammering action.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head
or hammer on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters
and images without direct physical contact between the paper and the
printing machinery. These printers can print a complete page at a time, so
they are also known as page printers. The common types of non-impact
printers are Laser printer and Inkjet printer:

i) Laser Printer:

A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to print the
characters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a photoreceptor and draws
the image on the drum by altering electrical charges on the drum. The drum
then rolls in toner, and the charged image on the drum picks the toner. The
toner is then printed on the paper using heat and pressure. Once the
document is printed, the drum loses the electric charge,and the remaining
toner is collected. The laser printers use powdered toner for printing instead
of liquid ink and produce quality print objects with a resolution of 600 dots
per inch (dpi) or more.
ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and characters by
spraying fine, ionized drops of ink. The print head has tiny nozzles to spray the
ink. The printer head moves back and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on
the paper, which is fed through the printer. These drops pass through an
electric field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images and
characters.

An inkjet printer has cartridges that contain ink. Modern inkjet printers are
color printers that have four cartridges containing different colors : Cyan,
Magenta, Yellow, and Black. It is capable of printing high-quality images with
different colors. It can produce print objects with a resolution of at least 300
dots per inch (dpi).

3) Projector

A projector is an output device that enables the user to project the output
onto a large surface such as a big screen or wall. It can be connected to a
computer and similar devices to project their output onto a screen. It uses
light and lenses to produce magnified texts, images, and videos. So, it is an
ideal output device to give presentations or to teach a large number of
people.
Modern projects (digital projectors) come with multiple input sources such as
HDMI ports for newer equipment and VGA ports that support older devices.
Some projectors are designed to support Wi-Fi and Bluetooth as well. They
can be fixed onto the ceiling, placed on a stand, and more and are frequently
used for classroom teaching, giving presentations, home cinemas, etc.

A digital projector can be of two types:

Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) digital projector: This type of digital projectors
are very popular as they are lightweight and provide crisp output. An LCD
projector uses transmissive technology to produce output. It allows the light
source, which is a standard lamp, to pass through the three colored liquid
crystal light panels. Some colors pass through the panels and some are
blocked by the panels and thus images are on the screen.

Digital Light Processing (DLP) digital projector: It has a set of tiny mirrors,
a separate mirror for each pixel of the image and thus provide high-quality
images. These projectors are mostly used in theatres as they fulfill the
requirement of high-quality video output.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

A Central Processing Unit is also called a processor, central processor, or
microprocessor. It carries out all the important functions of a computer. It
receives instructions from both the hardware and active software and
produces output accordingly. It stores all important programs like operating
systems and application software. CPU also helps Input and output devices to
communicate with each other. Owing to these features of CPU, it is often
referred to as the brain of the computer.

CPU is installed or inserted into a CPU socket located on the motherboard.

Furthermore, it is provided with a heat sink to absorb and dissipate heat to
keep the CPU cool and functioning smoothly.

Generally, a CPU has three components:

o ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

o Control Unit
o Memory or Storage Unit
Control Unit: It is the circuitry in the control unit, which makes use of
electrical signals to instruct the computer system for executing already stored
instructions. It takes instructions from memory and then decodes and
executes these instructions. So, it controls and coordinates the functioning of
all parts of the computer. The Control Unit's main task is to maintain and
regulate the flow of information across the processor. It does not take part in
processing and storing data.

ALU: It is the arithmetic logic unit, which performs arithmetic and logical
functions. Arithmetic functions include addition, subtraction, multiplication
division, and comparisons. Logical functions mainly include selecting,
comparing, and merging the data. A CPU may contain more than one ALU.
Furthermore, ALUs can be used for maintaining timers that help run the
computer.

Memory or Storage Unit/ Registers: It is called Random access memory

(RAM). It temporarily stores data, programs, and intermediate and final results
of processing. So, it acts as a temporary storage area that holds the data
temporarily, which is used to run the computer.

What is CPU Clock Speed?

The clock speed of a CPU or a processor refers to the number of instructions it
can process in a second. It is measured in gigahertz. For example, a CPU with a
clock speed of 4.0 GHz means it can process 4 billion instructions in a second.

Types of CPU:
CPUs are mostly manufactured by Intel and AMD, each of which manufactures
its own types of CPUs. In modern times, there are lots of CPU types in the
market. Some of the basic types of CPUs are described below:
Single Core CPU: Single Core is the oldest type of computer CPU, which was
used in the 1970s. It has only one core to process different operations. It can
start only one operation at a time; the CPU switches back and forth between
different sets of data streams when more than one program runs. So, it is not
suitable for multitasking as the performance will be reduced if more than one
application runs. The performance of these CPUs is mainly dependent on the
clock speed. It is still used in various devices, such as smart phones.

Dual Core CPU: As the name suggests, Dual Core CPU contains two cores in a
single Integrated Circuit (IC). Although each core has its own controller and
cache, they are linked together to work as a single unit and thus can perform
faster than the single-core processors and can handle multitasking more
efficiently than Single Core processors.

Quad Core CPU: This type of CPU comes with two dual-core processors in
one integrated circuit (IC) or chip. So, a quad-core processor is a chip that
contains four independent units called cores. These cores read and execute
instructions of CPU. The cores can run multiple instructions simultaneously,
thereby increases the overall speed for programs that are compatible with
parallel processing.

Quad Core CPU uses a technology that allows four independent processing
units (cores) to run in parallel on a single chip. Thus by integrating multiple
cores in a single CPU, higher performance can be generated without boosting
the clock speed. However, the performance increases only when the
computer's software supports multiprocessing. The software which supports
multiprocessing divides the processing load between multiple processors
instead of using one processor at a time.

History of CPU:
Some of the important events in the development of CPU since its
invention till date are as follows:

o In 1823, Baron Jons Jackob Berzelius discovered silicon that is the main
component of CPU till date.
o In 1903, Nikola Tesla got gates or switches patented, which are
electrical logic circuits.
o In December 1947, John Bardeen, William Shockley, and Walter Brattain
invented the first transistor at the Bell Laboratories and got it patented
in 1948.
o In 1958, the first working integrated circuit was developed by Robert
Noyce and Jack Kilby.
o In 1960, IBM established the first mass-production facility for transistors
in New York.
o In 1968, Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore founded Intel Corporation.
o AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) was founded in May 1969.
o In 1971, Intel introduced the first microprocessor, the Intel 4004, with
the help of Ted Hoff.
o In 1972, Intel introduced the 8008 processor; in 1976, Intel 8086 was
introduced, and in June 1979, Intel 8088 was released.
o In 1979, a 16/32-bit processor, the Motorola 68000, was released. Later,
it was used as a processor for the Apple Macintosh and Amiga
computers.
o In 1987, Sun introduced the SPARC processor.
o In March 1991, AMD introduced the AM386 microprocessor family.
o In March 1993, Intel released the Pentium processor. In 1995, Cyrix
introduced the Cx5x86 processor to give competition to Intel Pentium
processors.
o In January 1999, Intel introduced the Celeron 366 MHz and 400 MHz
processors.
o In April 2005, AMD introduced its first dual-core processor.
o In 2006, Intel introduced the Core 2 Duo processor.
o In 2007, Intel introduced different types of Core 2 Quad processors.
o In April 2008, Intel introduced the first series of Intel Atom processors,
the Z5xx series. They were single-core processors with a 200 MHz GPU.
o In September 2009, Intel released the first Core i5 desktop processor
with four cores.
o In January 2010, Intel released many processors such as Core 2 Quad
processor Q9500, first Core i3 and i5 mobile processors, first Core i3
and i5 desktop processors. In the same year in July, it released the first
Core i7 desktop processor with six cores.
o In June 2017, Intel introduced the first Core i9 desktop processor.
o In April 2018, Intel released the first Core i9 mobile processor.
Computer Memory
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw
data and produce output. The computer memory is divided into large number
of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a unique address which varies from
0 to memory size minus one.

Computer memory is of two types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The
secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as storage not memory.

But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:

o Register memory
o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory

Register Memory
Register memory is the smallest and fastest memory in a computer. It is not a
part of the main memory and is located in the CPU in the form of registers,
which are the smallest data holding elements. A register temporarily holds
frequently used data, instructions, and memory address that are to be used by
CPU. They hold instructions that are currently processed by the CPU. All data
is required to pass through registers before it can be processed. So, they are
used by CPU to process the data entered by the users.

Registers hold a small amount of data around 32 bits to 64 bits. The speed of
a CPU depends on the number and size (no. of bits) of registers that are built
into the CPU. Registers can be of different types based on their uses. Some of
the widely used Registers include Accumulator or AC, Data Register or DR, the
Address Register or AR, Program Counter (PC), I/O Address Register, and
more.

Primary Memory
Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.

RAM (Volatile Memory)

It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions
permanently. When you switch on the computer the data and instructions
from the hard disk are stored in RAM.

CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down
the computer the RAM loses all the data.

ROM (Non-volatile Memory)

It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that
are written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that
contains all important data and instructions needed to perform important
tasks like the boot process.

Secondary Memory
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected
to the computer are known as a secondary memory of the computer. It is also
known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is

non-volatile, so permanently stores the data even when the computer is
turned off or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU can't directly
access the secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred
to primary memory then the CPU can access it.

Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:

1) Hard Disk:
It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data
and is located within a drive unit.
The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that
stores data permanently, as it is a non-volatile storage device. The hard disk is
located within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard and comprises one
or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the
platters by moving a magnetic head over the platters as they spin. The data
stored on a computer's hard drive generally includes the operating system,
installed software, and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music,
videos, text documents, etc.

Components of Hard Drive:

The main components of a hard drive include a head actuator, read/write
actuator arm, read/write head, platter, and spindle. A circuit board, which is
called the disk controller or interface board, is present on the back of a hard
drive. It allows the hard drive to communicate with the computer.

2) Solid-state Drive:

SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to
hold and access data. Unlike a hard drive, it does not have moving
components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster access
time, noiseless operation, less power consumption, and more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a
standard hard drive in desktop and laptop computers. It is also suitable for
notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

3) Pen drive:
Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB
flash drive, thumb drive or a jump drive. It connects to a computer via a USB
port. It is commonly used to store and transfer data between computers. For
example, you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it
in the pen drive. Later, you can connect this pen drive to a computer to see or
edit your report. You can also store your important documents and pictures,
music, videos in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.

Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit
memory chip that stores the data. This chip is housed inside a plastic or
aluminium casing. The data storage capacity of the pen drive generally ranges
from 2 GB to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't
need additional drives, software, or hardware to use it.

4) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and
mobile devices such as smart phones and digital cameras. You can remove it
from your device and see the things stored in it using a computer with a card
reader.

There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does
not have moving parts. SD cards are not created equal, so they may differ
from each other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and capacity. For example,
standard SD cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.

5) Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round
medium disk. It is made of polycarbonate plastic. The concept of CD was co-
developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created on 17 August
1982 at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it
was used for various purposes such as for storing documents, audio files,
videos, and other data like software programs in a CD.

Physical characteristics of a CD/ Structure of CD:

A standard CD is around 5 inches in diameter and 0.05 inches in thickness. It is

made of a clear polycarbonate plastic substrate, a reflective metallic layer, and
a clear coating of acrylic plastic. These thin circular layers are attached one on
top of another as described below:

o A polycarbonate disc layer at the bottom has the data encoded by

creating lands and pits.
o The polycarbonate disc layer is coated with a thin aluminium layer that
reflects the laser.
o The reflective aluminium layer is coated with a lacquer layer to prevent
oxidation in order to protect the below layers. It is generally spin
coated directly on the top of the reflective layer.
o The label print is applied on the lacquer layer, or artwork is screen
printed on the top of the disc on the lacquer layer by offset printing or
screen printing.

How Does a CD Work?

The data or information is stored or recorded or encoded in CD digitally using
a laser beam that etches tiny indentations or bumps on its surface. The bump
is called a pit, which represents the number 0. Space, where the bump is not
created, is called land, and it represents the number 1. Thus, the data is
encoded into a compact disc by creating pits (0) and lands (1). The CD players
use laser technology to read the optically recorded data.
6) DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical
media used for storing optical data. Although it has the same size as a CD, its
storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is widely used for storing and
viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large to fit
on a CD. DVD was co-developed by Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in
1995.

Types of DVDs:
DVDs can be divided into three main categories which are as follows:

o DVD-ROM (Read-Only): These types of DVDs come with media

already recorded on them, such as movie dvds. As the name suggests,
data on these discs cannot be erased or added, so these discs are
known as a read-only or non-writable DVD.
o DVD-R (Writable): It allows you to record or write information to the
DVD. However, you can write information only once as it becomes a
read-only DVD once it is full.
o DVD-RW (Rewritable or Erasable): This type of discs can be erased,
written, or recorded multiple times.

Memory Units
Memory units are used to measure and represent data. Some of the
commonly used memory units are:
1) Bit: The computer memory units start from bit. A bit is the smallest memory
unit to measure data stored in main memory and storage devices. A bit can
have only one binary value out of 0 and 1.

2) Byte: It is the fundamental unit to measure data. It contains 8 bits or is

equal to 8 bits. Thus a byte can represent 2*8 or 256 values.

3) Kilobyte: A kilobyte contains 1024 bytes.

4) Megabyte: A megabyte contains 1024 kilobytes.

5) Gigabyte: A gigabyte contains 1024 megabyte.

6) Terabyte: A terabyte contains 1024 gigabytes.

Software
Software, which is abbreviated as SW or S/W, is a set of programs that enables
the hardware to perform a specific task. All the programs that run the
computer are software. The software can be of three types: system software,
application software, and programming software.

1) System Software
The system software is the main software that runs the computer. When you
turn on the computer, it activates the hardware and controls and coordinates
their functioning. The application programs are also controlled by system
software. An operating system is an example of system software.

i) Operating System:
An operating system is the system software that works as an interface to
enable the user to communicate with the computer. It manages and
coordinates the functioning of hardware and software of the computer. The
commonly used operating systems are Microsoft Windows, Linux, and Apple
Mac OS X.

Some other examples of system software include:

o BIOS: It stands for basic input output system. It is a type of system

software, which is stored in Read Only Memory (ROM) located on the
motherboard. However, in advanced computer systems, it is stored in
 flash memory. BIOS is the first software that gets activated when you
turn on your computer system. It loads the drivers of the hard disk into
memory as well as assists the operating system to load itself into the
memory.
o Boot Program: Boot refers to starting up a computer. When you switch
on the computer, the commands in the ROM are executed
automatically to load the boot program into memory and execute its
instructions. The BIOS program has a basic set of commands that
enables the computer to perform the basic input/output instructions to
start the computer.
o An assembler: It plays the role of a converter as it receives basic
computer instructions and converts them into a pattern of bits. The
processor uses these bits to perform basic operations.
o A device driver: This system software controls hardware devices
connected to a computer. It enables the computer to use the hardware
by providing an appropriate interface. The kernel of a Computer's CPU
communicates with different hardware through this software.
Operating systems generally come with most of the device drivers. If
the operating system does not have a device driver for hardware, you
have to install the device driver before using that hardware device.

2) Application Software:
Application software is a set of programs designed to perform a specific task.
It does not control the working of a computer as it is designed for end-users.
A computer can run without application software. Application software can be
easily installed or uninstalled as required. It can be a single program or a
collection of small programs. Microsoft Office Suite, Adobe Photoshop, and
any other software like payroll software or income tax software are application
software. As we know, they are designed to perform specific tasks.
Accordingly, they can be of different types such as:

o Word Processing Software: This software allows users to create, edit,

format, and manipulate the text and more. It offers lots of options for
writing documents, creating images, and more. For example, MS Word,
WordPad, Notepad, etc.
o Spreadsheet Software: It is designed to perform calculations, store
data, create charts, etc. It has rows and columns, and the data is
 entered in the cell, which is an intersection of a row and column, e.g.,
Microsoft Excel.
o Multimedia Software: These software are developed to perform
editing of video, audio, and text. It allows you to combine texts, videos,
audio, and images. Thus, you can improve a text document by adding
photos, animations, graphics, and charts through multimedia software.
For example, VLC player, Window Media Player, etc.
o Enterprise Software: These software are developed for business
operational functions. It is used in large organizations where the
quantum of business is too large. It can be used for accounting, billing,
order processing and more. For example, CRM (Customer Relationship
Management), BI (Business Intelligence), ERP (Enterprise Resource
Planning), SCM (Supply Chain Management), customer support system,
and more.

3) Programming Software:
It is a set or collection of tools that help developers in writing other software
or programs. It assists them in creating, debugging, and maintaining software
or programs or applications. We can say that these are facilitator software that
helps translate programming language such as Java, C++, Python, etc., into
machine language code. So, it is not used by end-users. For example,
compilers, linkers, debuggers, interpreters, text editors, etc. This software is
also called a programming tool or software development tool.

Some examples of programming software include:

o Eclipse: It is a java language editor.

o Coda: It is a programming language editor for Mac.
o Notepad++: It is an open-source editor for windows.
o Sublime text: It is a cross-platform code editor for Linux, Mac, and
Windows.

Computer Programming Language

As we know, to communicate with a person, we need a specific language,
similarly to communicate with computers, programmers also need a language
is called Programming language.
Before learning the programming language, let's understand what is
language?

What is Language?
Language is a mode of communication that is used to share ideas, opinions
with each other. For example, if we want to teach someone, we need a
language that is understandable by both communicators.

What is a Programming Language?

A programming language is a computer language that is used
by programmers (developers) to communicate with computers. It is a set
of instructions written in any specific language ( C, C++, Java, Python) to
perform a specific task.

A programming language is mainly used to develop desktop applications,

websites, and mobile applications.

Types of programming language

1. Low-level programming language
Low-level language is machine-dependent (0s and 1s) programming
language. The processor runs low- level programs directly without the need of
a compiler or interpreter, so the programs written in low-level language can
be run very fast.

Low-level language is further divided into two parts -

i. Machine Language

Machine language is a type of low-level programming language. It is also

called as machine code or object code. Machine language is easier to read
because it is normally displayed in binary or hexadecimal form (base 16) form.
It does not require a translator to convert the programs because computers
directly understand the machine language programs.

The advantage of machine language is that it helps the programmer to

execute the programs faster than the high-level programming language.

ii. Assembly Language

Assembly language (ASM) is also a type of low-level programming language
that is designed for specific processors. It represents the set of instructions in
a symbolic and human-understandable form. It uses an assembler to
convert the assembly language to machine language.

The advantage of assembly language is that it requires less memory and less
execution time to execute a program.

2. High-level programming language

High-level programming language (HLL) is designed for developing user-
friendly software programs and websites. This programming language
requires a compiler or interpreter to translate the program into machine
language (execute the program).

The main advantage of a high-level language is that it is easy to read, write,

and maintain.

High-level programming language includes Python, Java, JavaScript, PHP,

C#, C++, Objective C, Cobol, Perl, Pascal, LISP, FORTRAN, and Swift
programming language.

A high-level language is further divided into three parts -

i. Procedural Oriented programming language

Procedural Oriented Programming (POP) language is derived from structured

programming and based upon the procedure call concept. It divides a
program into small procedures called routines or functions.

Procedural Oriented programming language is used by a software

programmer to create a program that can be accomplished by using a
programming editor like IDE, Adobe Dreamweaver, or Microsoft Visual Studio.

The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track

the program flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.

The advantage of POP language is that it helps programmers to easily track the
program flow and code can be reused in different parts of the program.

Example: C, FORTRAN, Basic, Pascal, etc.

ii. Object-Oriented Programming language

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) language is based upon the objects. In

this programming language, programs are divided into small parts called
objects. It is used to implement real-world entities like inheritance,
polymorphism, abstraction, etc in the program to makes the program
resusable, efficient, and easy-to-use.

The main advantage of object-oriented programming is that OOP is faster and

easier to execute, maintain, modify, as well as debug.

Note: Object-Oriented Programming language follows a bottom-up approach.

Example: C++, Java, Python, C#, etc.

iii. Natural language

Natural language is a part of human languages such as English, Russian,

German, and Japanese. It is used by machines to understand, manipulate, and
interpret human's language. It is used by developers to perform tasks such
as translation, automatic summarization, Named Entity Recognition
(NER), relationship extraction, and topic segmentation.

The main advantage of natural language is that it helps users to ask questions
in any subject and directly respond within seconds.

3. Middle-level programming language

Middle-level programming language lies between the low-level
programming language and high-level programming language. It is also
known as the intermediate programming language and pseudo-language.

A middle-level programming language's advantages are that it supports the

features of high-level programming, it is a user-friendly language, and closely
related to machine language and human language.

Example: C, C++, language

Most commonly used Programming Language

As we all know, the programming language makes our life simpler. Currently,
all sectors (like education, hospitals, banks, automobiles, and more )
completely depend upon the programming language.
There are dozens of programming languages used by the industries. Some
most widely used programming languages are given below -

1. Python

Python

is one of the most widely used user-friendly programming languages. It is an

open-source and easy to learn programming language developed in the
1990s. It is mostly used in Machine learning, Artificial Intelligence, Big data,
GUI based desktop applications and Robotics.

Advantages

o Python is easy to read, easy to understand, and easy to write.

o It integrates with other programming languages like C, C++, and Java.
o Python executes code line-by-line, so it is easy for the programmer to
find the error that occurred in the code.
o Python is platform-independent means you can write code once and
run it anywhere.

Disadvantages

o Python is not suitable for developing mobile applications and games.

o Python works with the interpreter. That's why it is slower than other
programming languages like C and C++.
2. Java

Java is a simple, secure, platform-independent, reliable, architecture-

neutral high-level programming language developed by Sun
Microsystems in 1995. Now, Java is owned by Oracle. It is mainly used to
develop bank, retail, information technology, android, big data,
research community, web, and desktop applications.

Advantages

o Java is easy to write, compile, learn, and debug as compared to other

programming languages.
o It provides an ability to run the same program on different platforms.
o It is a highly secured programming language because in java, there is
no concept of explicit pointers.
o It is capable of performing multiple tasks at the same time.

Disadvantages

o Java consumes more memory and slower than other programming

languages like C or C++.
o It does not provide a backup facility.

3. C
 C is a popular, simple, and flexible general-purpose computer
programming language. Dennis M Ritchie develops it in 1972 at AT&T. It
is a combination of both low-level programming language as well as a
high-level programming language. It is used to design applications
like Text Editors, Compilers, Network devices, and many more.

Advantages

o C language is easy to learn.

o It is fast, efficient, portable, easy to extend, powerful, and flexible
programming language.
o It is used to perform complex calculations and operations such as
MATLAB.
o It provides dynamic memory allocation to allocate memory at the run
time.

Disadvantages

o In the C programming language, it is very difficult to find the errors.

o C does not support the concepts of constructors, destructors,
abstraction, polymorphism, encapsulation, and namespace like OOPs.

4. C++

C++ is one of the thousands of programming languages that we use to

develop software. C++ programming language is developed by Bjarne
Stroustrup in 1980. It is similar to the C programming language but also
includes some additional features such as exception handling, object-
oriented programming, type checking, etc.

Advantages
 o C++ is a simple and portable structured programming language.
o It supports OOPs features such as Abstraction, Inheritance,
Encapsulation.
o It provides high-level abstraction and useful for a low-level
programming language, and more efficient for general-purpose.
o C++ is more compatible with the C language.

Disadvantages

o C++ programming language is not secured as compared to other

programming languages like Java or Python.
o C++ can not support garbage collection.
o It is difficult to debug large as well as complex web applications.

5. C#

C # (pronounced as C sharp) is a modern, general-purpose, and object-

oriented programming language used with XML based Web services on
the .NET platform. It is mainly designed to improve productivity in web
applications. It is easier to learn for those users who have sufficient
knowledge of common programming languages like C, C++, or Java.

Advantages

o C# is a modern, type-safe, easy, fast, and open-source programming

language that is easily integrated with Windows.
o The maintenance of C# (C sharp) is lower than the C++ programming
language.
o C# is a pure object-oriented programming language.
 o C# includes a strong memory backup facility. That's why it avoids the
problem of memory leakage.

Disadvantages

o C# is less flexible because it is completely based on Microsoft .Net

framework.
o In C#, it is difficult to write, understand, debug, and maintain
multithreaded applications.

6. JavaScript

JavaScript is a type of scripting language that is used on both client-side

as well as a server-side. It is developed in the 1990s for the Netscape
Navigator web browser. It allows programmers to implement complex
features to make web pages alive. It helps programmers to create
dynamic websites, servers, mobile applications, animated graphics,
games, and more.

Advantage

o JavaScript helps us to add behavior and interactivity on the web page.

o It can be used to decrease the loading time from the server.
o It has the ability to create attractive, dynamic websites, and rich
interfaces.
o JavaScript is a simple, versatile, and lightweight programming
language.
o JavaScript and its syntax are easy to understand.

Disadvantage
 o JavaScript is completely based on the browser.
o It does not support multiple inheritance.
o It is less secure compared to other programming languages.

7. R

Currently, R programming is one of the popular programming

languages that is used in data analytics, scientific research, machine
learning algorithms, and statistical computing. It is developed in 1993 by
Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman. It helps marketers and data
scientists to easily analyze, present, and visualize data.

Advantages

o R programming provides extensive support for Data Wrangling.

o It provides an easy-to-use interface.
o It runs on any platform like Windows, Linux, and Mac.
o It is an open-source and platform-independent programming
language.

Disadvantages

o R programming does not support 3D graphics.

o It is slower than other programming languages.
8. PHP

PHP stands for Hypertext Preprocessor. It is an open-source, powerful

server-side scripting language mainly used to create static as well as
dynamic websites. It is developed by Rasmus Laird in 1994. Inside the
php, we can also write HTML, CSS, and JavaScript code. To save php
file, file extension .php is used.

Advantages

o PHP is a more secure and easy-to-use programming language.

o It supports powerful online libraries.
o It can be run on a variety of operating systems such as Windows, Linux,
and Mac.
o It provides excellent compatibility with cloud services.

Disadvantages

o PHP is not capable of handling a large number of applications and not

suitable for large applications.
o It is quite difficult to maintain.

What is a Language Processor?

Mostly, high-level languages like Java, C++, Python, and more are used to
write the programs, called source code, as it is very uninteresting work to write
a computer program directly in machine code. These source codes need to
translate into machine language to be executed because they cannot be
executed directly by the computer. Hence, a special translator system, a
language processor, is used to convert source code into machine language.
A language processor is a special type of software program that has the
potential to translate the program codes into machine codes. Languages such
as COBOL and Fortran have language processors, which are generally used to
perform tasks like processing source code to object code. A specific
description of syntax, lexicon, and semantics of a high-level language is
required to design a language processor.

Types of language processors

There are mainly three kinds of language processors, which are discussed
below:

1. Compiler: The language processor allows the computer to run and

understand the

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program by reading the complete source program in one time, which is

written in a high-level language. The computer can then interpret this code
because it is translated into machine language. While working on the Harvard
Mark I computer, Grace Hopper created the first compiler. In modern times, to
compile the program, most of the high-level languages have toolkits or a
compiler. Gcc command for C and C++ and Eclipse for Java are two popular
compilers. It takes a few seconds or minutes while compiling the program
based on how big the program is.

2. Assembler: An assembler converts programs written in assembly language

into machine code. It is also referred to assembler as assembler language by
some users. The source program has assembly language instructions, which is
an input of the assembler. The assemble translates this source code into a
code that is understandable by the computer, called object code or machine
code.
 3. Interpreter: An interpreter is a computer program that allows a computer
to interpret or understand what tasks to perform. The programs written with
the help of using one of the many high-level programming languages are
directly executed by an interpreter without previously converting them to an
object code or machine code, which is done line by line or statement by
statement. When the interpreter is translating the source code, it displays an
error message if there is an error in the statement and terminates this
statement from translating process. When the interpreter removed errors on
the first line, then it moves on to the next line.

Difference between Compiler and Interpreter

Compiler Interpreter

A compiler is a program that takes the complete The interpreter is different from the
program as a single unit and converts the entire Compiler; it takes a source program and
source code into executable machine code for a translates it one by one, and executes.
CPU.

The compiler is comparatively faster in order to As compared to the compiler, an

the overall execution of the source code; however, interpreter is slower in order to the
it takes a large amount of time to analyze to overall execution of the programming
compile the complete programming code. code, but it takes less time to evaluate
the source code.

When the compiler completes scanning the whole With an interpreter, until the error is
program, then it generates the error message. As met, it continues converting the
the error can be found in any statement in the program; therefore, its debugging is
program; therefore, debugging is comparatively easier.
hard with a compiler.

When you want to run the program, a translator When you want to run the program, a
program is needed each time to convert the translator program is not needed each
source code. time to convert the source code.
It stores object code and is more beneficial for It does not hold object code, and it is
commercial purposes. more beneficial for learning purposes.

Examples: C, C++, Java, FORTRAN compiler, Examples: Python, Perl, LISP, APL, Prolog
PASCAL compiler. interpreter, etc.

Algorithms and Functions

Algorithm: An algorithm is a step-by-step method for solving some problem.

Characteristics of Algorithms:
Algorithms generally have the following characteristics:

1. Input: The algorithm receives input. Zero or more quantities are

externally supplied.
2. Output: The algorithm produces output. At least one quantity is
produced.
3. Precision: The steps are precisely stated. Each instruction is clear and
unambiguous.
4. Feasibility: It must be feasible to execute each instruction.
5. Flexibility: It should also be possible to make changes in the algorithm
without putting so much effort on it.
6. Generality: The algorithm applies to a set of inputs.
7. Finiteness: Algorithm must complete after a finite number of
instruction have been executed.

Analysis (Complexity) of Algorithms

The Analysis of an algorithm refers to the process of deriving estimates for the
time and space needed to execute the algorithm.

It is important to estimate the time (e.g., the number of steps) and space (e.g.,
the number of variables) required by algorithms. Knowing the time and space
required by algorithm allows us to compare the algorithms that solve the
same problem. For example, if one algorithm takes n steps to solve a problem
and another algorithm takes n^2 steps to solve the same problem, we would
prefer the first algorithm. This estimation of time and space needed to execute
the algorithm is called the time and space complexity of the algorithm.

The time required to execute an algorithm is a function of the input.

Instead of dealing directly with the input, parameters are used to characterize
the size of the input. e.g. if the input is a set containing n elements, the size of
the input n. There are three cases worth noting about the time complexity of
an algorithm since determining the exact time complexity of an algorithm in a
difficult task.

o Worst-case: f (n) represent by the maximum number of steps taken on

any instance of size n.
o Best-case: f (n) represent by the minimum number of steps taken on
any instance of size n.
o Average case: f (n) represent by the average number of steps taken on
any instance of size n.

Pseudo Code
It is written in the form of annotations and informational text that is written in
plain English only. Just like programming languages, it doesn't have any
syntax, so it cannot be compiled or interpreted by the compiler.

Advantages of Pseudo code

o In order to improve the readability of any approach, pseudo code plays

a very important role.
o In between the program and the algorithm, Pseudo code work as a
bridge. It is treated as a document so that the developer can
understand the program easily.
o Pseudo code focuses on explaining the working on each line of the
program. Due to this, it is very easy for the programmer to construct
the code.

Disadvantages of Pseudo code

The pseudo code also comes with disadvantages in Java. There are various
disadvantages of Pseudo code in Java which are as follows:
 o The visual representation of the programming code can be easily
understood, and the pseudo code doesn't provide it.
o There is no well-defined format to write the pseudo code.
o There are no standards available for pseudo code. Companies use their
own standards to write it.
o If we use pseudo code, we need to maintain one more document for
our code.

Conditions & Loop in Pseudo code

[Link]

1. class ArmstrongNumberExample{
2. public static void main(String[] args) {
3. int c = 0, a, temp;
4. int n = 153; //It is the number to check armstrong
5. temp = n;
6. while(n > 0)
7. {
8. a = n % 10;
9. n = n / 10;
10. c = c +(a * a * a);
11. }
12. if(temp == c)
13. [Link]("armstrong number");
14. else
15. [Link]("Not armstrong number");
16. }
17. }

The pseudo code of the above program can be written in the following way:

1. Initialize c to zero.
2. Initialize n to a random number to check Armstrong.
3. Initialize temp to n.
4. Repeat steps until the value of n are greater than zero.
5. Find a reminder of n by using n%10.
6. Remove the last digit from the number by using n/10.
7. Find the thrice of the reminder and add it to c.
8. If temp == c
Print "Armstrong number"
9. else
Not an Armstrong number"