Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

LECTURE NOTE ON INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING

MODULE THREE
SIGNAL CONDITIONING AND CONVERTERS

SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal Conditioning is depending on the transducer signal.
 A resistance change to a current or potential difference change e.g. Wheatstone bridge
 An inductance or capacitance change into a current or potential difference change.e.g Alternating
current bridge
Capacitor Displacement Sensor/Transducer
Capacitors are devices that store electric energy in the form of an electric field generated in the space
between two separated, oppositely charged electrodes.
 Variable Distance Displacement Sensor/Transducer

 Variable Area Displacement Sensor/Transducer

1
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
 Variable Dielectric Displacement Sensor/Transducer

 Differential Capacitive Sensor/Transducer

 Capacitive Moisture Sensor/Transducer

 A displacement change into a resistance, change into a current or potential difference change.
 An electrical current into a mechanical motion e.g. moving coil galvanometer
 An electrical potential difference into a displacement e.g. linear potentiometer
 A pneumatic signal into an electrical signal e.g. bourdon tube, rotary potentiometer

 A pneumatic signal to a mechanical signal.e.g actuator

 A hydraulic signal to a mechanical signal. e.g. actuator, hydraulic cylinder
 a mechanical signal to an optical signal e.g. rotating mirror, ultraviolet recorders

2
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
SENSING ELEMENTS PRACTICAL EXAMPLE
Dial Indicator
Dial indicators are used to sense displacement from a reference plane and display the deviation thereof. The
display can be electronically coupled for amplification and/or display purposes. The range of a measuring
instrument may be extended if multiple copies of the object to be measured are available.

Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge

The Bourdon tube is also an elastic element type of pressure transducer. Bourdon tube is act as primary
sensing and variable conversion element. Bourdon tubes are designed for measuring high pressures. The
bourdon tube convert pressure into mechanical motion which can be used for pneumatic control. It consists
of a specially shaped piece of curved or twisted along its length and has an oval cross-section, flexible,
metal tube that is fixed at one end and free to move at the other end. The tube is sealed at one end and tends
to unwind or straighten when it is subjected to a pressure applied to the inside. When pressure is applied at
the open, fixed end of the tube, the oval cross-section becomes more circular. The input pressure is sensed
and converted into small displacement by a bourdon tube. In consequence, there is a displacement of the
free end of the tube. On account of input pressure the closed end of the tube is displaced. Because of this
pressure in converted into small displacement. This displacement is measured by some form of
displacement transducer, which is commonly a potentiometer or LVDT. Capacitive and optical sensors are
also sometimes used to measure the displacement. The closed end of bourdon tube is connected through
3
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
mechanical linkage to a gearing arrangement. The small displacement signal can be amplified by gearing
arrangement and transmitted by mechanical linkages and finally it makes the pointer to rotate on a large
angle of scale. If it is calibrated with known input pressure, gives the measurement of the pressure signal
applied to the bourdon tube in measured. It is relatively cheap and is commonly used for measuring the
gauge pressure of both gaseous and liquid fluids.

Dynamometers
The dynamometer is a device used to measure the torque being exerted along a rotating shaft so as to
determine the shaft power input or output of power-generating, transmitting, and absorbing machinery.
Dynamometers are generally classified into: Transmission dynamometers, Driving dynamometer,
Absorption dynamometers, Rope Brake Dynamometers.
Force
Force represents the mechanical quantity which changes or tends to change the relative motion or shape of
the body on which it acts. Force is vector quantity specified completely by its magnitude, point of
application, line of action and direction. The relationship between motion and force is provided by the laws
of dynamics. Newton’s second low of motion states that force is proportional to the rate of change of
momentum.
Force = mass × acceleration, F = m × a (N)
Work
Work represents the product of force and the displacement measured in the direction of force.
Work done = Force × displacement; W = F × s (J or Nm)
Torque
It represents the amount of twisting effort, and numerically it equals the product of force and the moment
arm or the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation (fulcrum) to the point of application of force.
Consider a wheel rotated by the force, F applied at radius, r. Thus measurement of torque is intimately
related to force measurement.
Torque or twisting moment = Force x radius of the rotation, T = F × r (Nm)
Power
Power is the rate of doing work and is obtained by dividing the work done by time. The unit of power is
watt (W), kilowatt (kW) or megawatt (MW). Watt represents a work equivalent of one joule done per
second.
W
Power = work done per unit time, P = (Watt, W)
t
Work done = Force x distance moved,
Work done = Force x length of an arc of the rotational movement from one point to other point
W = F × rθ
Work done by torque = Torque x angular displacement
W = Tθ
4
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
θ
Angular velocity = angular displacement per unit time (rad/s), ω = → θ = ωt
t
W = T ωt → P = T ω
2Π 2ΠN N 1
ω= = ; since (rev per second) = f = (number of cycle per second)
t 60 60 t
2ΠNT
P = Tω= (Watt, W)
60

Transmission Dynamometers
Transmission dynamometers in which the energy being transmitted either to or from dynamometer
is not absorbed or dissipated. After measurement, the energy is conveyed to the surroundings in a
useful mechanical or electrical form. A small amount of power ma). However, be lost by friction at the
joints of the dynamometer. The type includes torsion and belt dynamometers, and strain gauge
dynamometers.

Driving Dynamometer
Driving dynamometer which may be coupled to either power-absorbing or power generating
devices since it may operate either a motor or a generator. These instruments measure power and also
supply energy to operate the tested devices. They are essentially useful in determining performance
characteristics of such machines as pumps and compressors. Electric cradled dynamometer is a typical
example of the driving dynamometer.

Absorption Dynamometers
Absorption dynamometers, often called brakes because their operation depends on the creation of a
controllable drag torque, convert mechanical work into heat. Absorption dynamometers in which the energy
is converted into heat by friction while being measured. The heat is dissipated to the surroundings where it
generally serves no useful purpose. Absorption dynamometers are used when the test-machine is a power
generator such as an engine, turbine and an electric motor. A drag torque, as distinguished from an active
torque, can act only to restrain and not to initiate rotational motion. Temperature rise within a dynamometer
is controlled by carrying away the heat energy, usually by transfer to a moving fluid, typically air or water.
The types commonly used include Prony brakes, hydraulic or fluid friction brakes, fan brakes and eddy
current dynamometers.

θ
Angular velocity = angular displacement per unit time, ω = → θ = ωt
t
Work done = Force x distance moved,
Torque or twisting moment = Force x radius of the rotation, T = F × r.
Work done = Force x length of an arc of the rotational movement from one point to other point
W = F × rθ

5
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Work done by torque = Torque x angular displacement
W = Tθ
W
Power = work done per unit time, P =
t
W = T ωt → P = T ω
2Π 2ΠN N 1
ω= = ; since (rev per second) = f = (number of cycle per second)
t 60 60 t
2ΠNT
P = Tω= (Watt, W)
60

Work Example 1
Absorption dynamometer is used as test engine to determine the power produced by the biodiesel tested for
its performance evaluation. The engine give a torque of 200 Nm with revolution of 1200 rpm. What is the
amount of power produced?
Solution
Given: T = 220 Nm, N =1200 rpm
2ΠNT 2×3.142×1200 ×200
P= = = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟑𝟔 W = 25.136 kW
60 60
Rope Brake Dynamometers
A rope brake dynamometers consists of one or more ropes wrapped around the fly wheel of an engine
whose power is to be measured. The ropes are spaced evenly across the width of the rim by means of U-
shaped wooden blocks' located at different points of the rim of the flywheel. The upward ends of the
rope are connected together and attached to a spring balance, and the downward ends are kept in place
by a dead weight. The rotation of flywheel produces frictional force and the rope tightens. Consequently
a force is induced in the spring balance. Generation of heat is enormous and that necessitates a cooling
arrangement for the brake. The rim is made trough shaped internally. Water is run into the trough and
kept in place by the centrifugal force.

Let W be dead weight , S be the spring balance reading, D be the brake drum diameter, and d be the rope
(D+d)
diameter. Then effective radius of the brake drum R eff =
2
Brake Load or Net Load, F = (W – S) = (mg – S)
Brake Torque, T = (W – S) R eff = (mg – S) R eff
2ΠNT 2ΠN 2ΠN
Brake Power, P = T ω = = (W – S)R eff = (mg – S) R eff (Watt, W)
60 60 60

Work Example 2
Rope brake dynamometer is used as test engine to determine the power produced by the biofuel tested for
its performance evaluation. The mass of dead weight attached to the engine is 400 kg having revolution of
1500 rpm. The spring balance reading is 2000 N, the brake drum diameter of 200 mm and the rope diameter
of 30 mm. What is the amount of power produced? Take g = 10 m/s2
Solution
Given: m = 400 kg, N =1500 rpm, S = 2000 N, D = 200 mm = 0.2 m, d = 30 mm = 0.03 m, g = 10 m/s2,
6
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
(D+d) (0.2+0.03)
R eff = = = 0.115 m
2 2
2ΠN 2×3.142 ×1500
Brake Power, P = (mg – S) R eff = (400 × 10 – 2000) × 0.115 = 36133 W= 36.133 kW
60 60

Mechanical Brakes
Mechanical brakes: The Prony and the rope brakes are the two types of mechanical brakes chiefly
employed for power measurement. The Prony brake has two common arrangements in the block type
and the band type. Whereas the block type is employed to high speed shafts with a small pulley, the
band type measures the power of low speed shafts having a relatively large pulley.
The block type Prony brake consists of two blocks of wood each of which embraces rather less than one
half of the pulley rim. One block carries a lever arm to the end of which a pull can be applied by means
of a dead weight or spring balance. A second arm projects from the block in the opposite direction and
carries a counter-weight to balance the brake when unloaded. When operating, friction between the
blocks and the pulley tends to rotate the blocks in the direction of the rotation of the shaft. This
tendency is prevented by adding weights at the extremity of the lever arm so that it remains horizontal
in a position of equilibrium.

W be the weight in newton, L be the effective length of the lever arm in meter, and N be the revolutions
of the crankshaft per minute. Then: T = w × L
2ΠN
P = Tω= W × L (Watt, W)
60
The power absorbed by this type of dynamometer is independent of the size of the brake and the coefficient
of friction.

Work Example 3
Mechanical brakes dynamometer is used as test engine to determine the power produced by the gasohol
tested for its performance evaluation. The mass of weight attached to the engine is 1500 N having revolution
of 1000 rpm. The length of the lever arm is 1000 mm. What is the amount of power produced? Take g = 10
m/s2
Solution
Given: W= 1500 N, N =1000 rpm, L = 1000 mm = 1 m
2ΠN 2×3.142 × 1000
P= W×L= × 1500 × 1 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐖 = 𝟏𝟓𝟕. 𝟏 𝐤𝐖
60 60

Hydraulic Dynamometer
A hydraulic dynamometer uses fluid-friction rather than dry friction for dissipating -the input energy.
The unit consists essentially of two elements namely a rotating disk and stationary casing. The rotating
disk is keyed to the driving shaft of the prime-mover and it resolves inside the stationary casing. The
casing is mounted on antifriction (trunnion) bearings and has a brake arm and a balance system
attached to it. Such bearings allow the casing to rotate freely except for the restraint imposed by the
brake arm. Further, the casing is in two-halves; one of which is placed on either side of the rotating disk.
Semi-elliptical recesses in the casing match with the corresponding grooves inside the rotating disk to
form chambers through which a stream of water flow is maintained. When brake is operating, the water
7
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
follows a helical path in the chamber. Vortices and eddy-currents are set-up in the water and these tend
to turn the dynamometer casing .in the direction of rotation of the engine shaft. This tendency is
resisted by the brake arm balance system that measure the torque.

Eddy Current Dynamometer

This electrical absorption dynamometer operates on the principle that when an isolated conductor moves
through a magnetic field, voltage is induced and local currents flow in a short circular path within the
conductor. These currents, called eddy currents get dissipated in the form of heat.

AMPLIFYING ELEMENTS
A sensing element gives out a signal which is a function of its input signal.
Depending on the transducer signal the signal conditioning may be any one of the following.

Mechanical Amplifying Elements

Mechanical amplifying elements such as levers, gears or a combination of the two, designed to have a
multiplying effect on the input transducer signal. Amplifying elements is used to magnify the input value
to greater output value. Dial indicator and Bourdon tube pressure gauge are typical examples that have
mechanical amplifying elements of which they have combination of the two elements (Levers and Gear) as
shown above in page 2.
 Lever System
 Lever has pivot where to be place as the fulcrum and distance from the pivot to the each end of the

lever.
 Instrument pointer is a simple example of Lever. The pointer rotates about an axis (pivoted point).

8
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

 Lever can be used to change the size of a displacement signal from a sensing element
 Small displacement → Bigger displacement
Input displacement Ouput displacement
=
Input pivot distance Output pivot distance
 The transfer function or gain or magnification or amplification of the lever that is how much bigger the
output is than the input.
ouput output pivot distance
Transfer function or Gain = =
input input pivot distance
x∶ X = r∶ R
 For Simple Lever System

x r Rx
X
= →X=
R r
Ouput Output pivot distance Output displacement
Transfer function or Gain = = =
Input Input pivot distance Input displacement
 For Compound Lever System
 Compound levers enable quite large amplifications of displacements to be obtained,

y1 r1 y1 r3 Rr2
= → = →Y= y
y2 r2 Y R r1 r3 1
Ouput Output from Levers
Transfer function or Gain = =
Input Input to Levers
Ouput First Lever Output
Transfer function for First Lever = =
Input First Lever Input
Ouput Second Lever Output Second Lever Output
Transfer function for Second Lever = = =
Input Second Lever Input First Lever Output
The overall transfer function is the product of the transfer function of the two levers
Overall Transfer function = Transfer function for First Lever × Transfer function for Second Lever
First Lever Output Second Lever Output
Overall Transfer function = ×
First Lever Input First Lever Output
Ouput Output from Levers
Transfer function or Gain = =
Input Input to Levers
Output from Levers First Lever Output
Overall Transfer function = ×
First Lever Output Input to Levers

9
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
A simple lever device which increases a small input movement (x) to give an amplified movement (X) on
the scale

Therefore x: x = r: R
𝑥 𝑟
i.e. = ,
𝑋 𝑅
𝑅.𝑥
𝑋=
𝑟
Using a compound lever system an increase amplification may be obtained as shown in figure below:

The figure above shows an input signal, movement 𝑦1 causing a rotation of the lever AB, fixed at A. The
lever is displaced at angle λ to the vertical the 𝑦2 movement of B is transmitted to the second level CE by
a link BD this movement 𝑦2 of the link BD is increased by the second lever CE to bring about am amplified
output signal, movement Y: As shown, the lever CE is displaced at a larger angle and to the vertical.
y1 y2
λ0 = = rad (1)
r1 r2
It implies that
r2
y2 = y1 . (2)
r1

10
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
y2 Y
Also, α0 = = rad (3)
r3 R

R
Y = y2 . (3)
r3
r
So, substituting y2 = y1 . r2in equal to (4), we have that,
1

r2 R
Y = y1 . .
r1 r3
R. r2
Y=( )y
r1 . r3 1
Work Example 4a
The following lengths apply to the compound lever system shown in figure below in the text: r1 = 6 mm,
r2 = 95 mm, (r3 = 7.5 mm, R = 112 mm calculate the amplification of the system.

Solution
Given: r1 = 6 mm, r2 = 95 mm, (r3 =7.5 mm, R =112 mm calculate the amplification of the system.
y1 y2
λ0 = = rad
r1 r2
It implies that
r2
y2 = y1 .
r1
y2 Y
Also, α0 = = rad
r3 R

R
Y = y2 .
r3
r
So, substituting y2 = y1 . r2in equal to (4), we have that,
1

r2 R
Y = y1 . .
r1 r3
R. r2
Y=( )y
r1 . r3 1
Y R.r2
So, the amplification, = (r )
y1 1 .r3
11
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
112 × 95
6 × 7.5
Y
= 236.44
y1
Y
≃ 236
y1
 Gear Train System
 Gear trains have rotation as an input pivot and give rotation as an output

 Small rotation → Bigger rotation

Number of Teeth on the Input Gear, Ti Number of revolution on the Input Gear Shaft, Ni
=
Number of Teeth on the Output Gear, To Number of revolution on the Output Gear Shaft, No
 The transfer function of the gear trains that is how much bigger the output is than the input in revolution.
ouput Number of revolution on the Output Gear Shaft, No
Transfer function or Gain = =
input Number of revolution on the Input Gear Shaft, Ni
 For Simple Gear Train System

 For Compound Gear Train System\

 Compound gear trains enable to give greater magnifications or amplifications

Work Example 4b
What is the transfer function of a lever for which the input is 4 mm from the pivot and the output 40 mm?
Solution
Given: Input = 4 mm, Output = 40 mm
40
Transfer function or Gain = = 10
4
The answer means that the output displacement is 10 times bigger than the input displacement.

Work Example 5
What is the overall transfer function of the combination of two levers, if the first lever has a transfer function
of 10 and the second lever of 12?
Solution
Given: Transfer function of first lever = 10, Transfer function of second lever = 12

12
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Overall Transfer function = Transfer function for First Lever ×
Transfer function for Second Lever
Overall Transfer function = 10 × 12 = 120
The answer means that the output displacement is 120 times bigger than the input displacement.

Hydraulic/Pneumatic Amplifying Elements

Hydraulic/Pneumatic amplifying elements employing various types of valves or constrictions, such as
Venturimeter/Orificemeter, to get significant variation in pressure with small variation in the input
parameters.

Pressure, P = Force /Area

FS 𝑎
Pressure, P = FS /a = FL /A → =
FL 𝐴
Y A A D 2
aY = Ay → = →Y= y=( ) y
y a a d
Ouput Output Force
Transfer function or Gain = =
Input Input Force
Y D 2
Transfer function or Gain = = ( )
y d
Y D 2
Transfer function or Gain = = ( )
y d

The Hounsfield tonometer testing machine is a common equipment effectively used for hydraulic
amplification force is applied to a test piece through a steel beam which deflects by a small amount. This
deflection is applied by the displacement of mercury from a cylinder unto a glass capillary tube, as shown
in figure below. If y is the movement of the piston and the movement of the mercury meniscus in the
capillary tube is Y, then
Volume of mercury displaced form cylinder = volume increase in capillary tube

So, inner area of cylinder x movement = inner area of capillary tube x movement j2 of the mercury meniscus
in the capillary tube

Ay = aY
A
Y= y
a
4D2
y
4d2

13
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
D
Y = ( )2 y
d

Work Example 6a
In a fluid amplification device shown in fig. 2.18 in the text, the diameters were D = 30mm and the capillary
bore, d =1.3mm. Calculate the amplification of the system.

Solution
movement of fluid meuiseous in table
Aplplication of the system =
movemnet of plunger in cylinder
movement of fluid meuiseous in table
Aplplication of the system =
movemnet of plunger in cylinder
8Y A
i.e., Amplification = =
8y a

πD2 4
= 2
8y πd

D2
d2
30 2
( ) = 533.54
2.3
Amplification = 533

Work Example 6b
What is the transfer function or amplification of a hydraulic system for which the input channel diameter
is 10 mm from the suction and the output channel diameter 50 mm?
Solution
Given: input channel diameter = 10 mm, output channel diameter = 50 mm
50 2
Transfer function or Gain = ( ) = 25
10
The answer means that the output force is 25 times bigger than the input force

Electrical Amplifying Elements

Electrical amplifying elements employing transistor circuits, integrated circuits, etc, for boosting the
amplitude of the transducer signal. In such amplifiers we have either of the following:
Electrical amplifiers can be considered to have an input of a small potential difference and give an output
of a bigger potential difference.
 Small potential difference → Bigger potential difference
14
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Output Voltage V𝑜
Voltage Amplification = =
Input Voltage V𝑖
Output Current I𝑜
Current Amplification = =
Input Current I𝑖
Output Power V𝑜 I𝑜
Transfer function or Gain = =
Input Power V𝑖 I𝑖

 Differential Amplifier
R2
Vo = (V − V1 )
R1 2
Electrical amplifiers are used where it is required that the output power of the instrument exceeded the input
power. Figure below illustrate the overall features of an electrical amplifier.

Electrical Amplifier
power output v0 vi
So, gain = =
power input vi vi

Power amplification = Voltage amplification × Current amplification

Power = Voltage × Current
D .C amplifier or A. C amplifier may be used. The D. C amplifiers are those that are capable of amplifying
static slowly changing or rapid, repetitive input signal which the A.C. amplifiers are only capable of dealing
with rapid, repetitive signals. But the A.C types are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and
simpler than the D.C types.

Work Example 7
What is the transfer function of an electrical amplifiers for which the input voltage 3 V and current 2 A
from the voltammeter and the output voltage 9 V and current 4 A?
Solution
Given: Input voltage = 3 V, Output voltage = 9 V, Input current = 2 A, Output current = 4 A
Output Power 9 ×4 36
Transfer function or Gain = = = =6
Input Power 3×2 6
The answer means that the output power is 6 times bigger than the input power.

Optical Amplifying Elements

15
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Optical amplifying elements in which lenses, mirrors and combinations of lenses and mirrors or lamp and
scale arrangement are employed to convert the small input displacement into an output of sizeable
magnitude for a convenient display of the same.
Y = 2θR
Deflection of the mirror = θ
Deflection of the scale = Y
Deflection of the reflected ray = 2θ
Radius of the light rays = R
Output Scale deflection Y 2θR
Transfer function or Gain = = = = = 2R
Input Mirror deflection θ θ

A very useful means of amplification of small linear and rotational displacements without applying any
measurable force to the displaced element is often provided by optical methods. Figure below shows a
cantilever sensing the magnitude of the force P, given as an output signal the slope 0 = K P. where k is a
constant. Initially, where P = 0, the calibrated light ray is reflected back by the mirror M along the same
path to the scale zero when the force P,

Causes a slope Qi of the end of the cantilevers, the outgoing ray OMN is deflected through an angle 2Qi,
since both the incident and reflected angle at the mirror are equal to Qi. The radius R maybe increase to the
scale deflection, Y further mirror surface may be added, each one given a further amplification. This
principle may also be applicable in electrical instrument such as the ultra-violent recorder and spot
galvanometer may also be applicable in electrical instruments such as the ultra –violent recorder and spot
galvanometer.

Optical Amplification System of an Ultra-Violet Recorder

16
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Work Example 8a
The collimated light ray reflected from the mirror of the miniature galvanometer on to alight sensitive paper
at 100 mm. Calculate the magnification or amplification
Solution
Given: R = 100 mm, Mirror deflection angle = θ
Scale deflection 2θR
Transfer function or Gain = = = 2R = 2 × 100 = 200 mm
Mirror deflection θ
The answer means that the output is 2 times bigger than the input.

Work Example 8b
Figure below shows the optical amplification system of a ultra-violet recorder.

The collimated light ray reflects from the minor of the miniature galvanometer on to a light-sensitive paper
at 105 mm radius from minor. Calculate the sensitivity of the arrangement in mm/rad.

Solution
If θ1 is the deflection of the minor,

Then,

Deflection of reflected ray is θ2 = 2θ1

Also scale deflection is Y = θ2 x R

So Y = 2θ1 R
Change of Output Signal
Sensitivty =
Change of Input Signal
Y 2θ1 .R
θ1
= = 2R
θ1

2R = 2 × 105

Sensitivity = 210mm/rad

SIGNAL FILTRATION
The term signal filtration means the removal of unwanted noise signals that tend to obscure the transducer
signal. The signal filtration element could be any of the following depending on the type of situation, nature
of signal, etc.
 Mechanical Filters

17
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Mechanical Filters that consist of mechanical elements to protect the transducer element from various
interfering extraneous signals. For example: the reference junction of a thermocouple is kept in a thermos
flask containing ice. This protects the system from the ambient temperature changes.
 Pneumatic Filters
Pneumatic filters consisting of a small orifice or venturi to filter out fluctuations in a pressure signal.
 Electrical Filters
Electrical filters are employed to get rid of stray pick-ups due to electrical and magnetic fields. They may
be simple R-C circuits or any other suitable electrical filters compatible with the transduced signal.

SIGNAL CONVERTERS
Wheatstone Bridge
The simplest form of bridge is for the purpose of measuring resistance and is called the Wheatstone bridge.
This bridge is widely used for precision measurement of resistance from 1Ω to the low mega ohm range. It
is the most accurate method available for measuring resistance and is popular for laboratory use.

This bridge consists of four resistive arms, together with a DC source V and null detector. The null detector
may be galvanometer (G) or other sensitive current meter.
The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between C and D. When the
current through the galvanometer is Zero, the circuit said to be balanced. Here the bridge is balanced when
the potential difference across C and D is zero.
V = IR
V = I1 R1 = I2 R2
If the galvanometer current is zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.
V
I1 = I3 =
R1 +R3
V
I2 = I4 =
R2 +R4
Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in equation I1 R1 = I2 R2 we get
V V
× R1 = × R2
R1 + R 3 R2 + R4
R1 R2
=
R1 + R 3 R2 + R4
R1 (R 2 + R 4 ) = R 2 (R1 + R 3 )
R1 R 2 + R1 R 4 = R1 R 2 + R 2 R 3
R1 R 4 = R 2 R 3
The above equation is the well-known expression for balance of the Wheatstone bridge.
Here, the unknown resistor is R4 and R4 can be focused as follows;
R2
RX = R4 = R
R1 3
The resistors R1 and R2 are called ratio arms and resistor R3 is called standard arm of the bridge.
The measurement of the unknown resistance, that is, R4 is independent of the characteristics or the
calibration of the null detecting galvanometer, provided that the null detector has sufficient sensitivity to
indicate the balance position of the bridge with the required degree of precision.

18
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Applications of Wheatstone Bridge
(i) To measure the direct current, D.C resistance of various types of wire either for the purpose of quality
control of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.
(ii) This bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable faults.
Disadvantages;
 For low resistance measurements, the resistance of the leads and contacts become significant and
introduces an error. This error can be eliminated by Kelvin's double bridge.
 The other main difficulty in Wheatstone bridge is the change in resistance of the bridge arms due to
the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in temperature causes a change in the value
of the resistance and excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.
Work Example 9
Find the unknown resistor R4 that causes a Wheatstone bridge to null if the following components
parameters are: R1 = 8 kΩ, R2 = 30 kΩ, R3 = 1 kΩ. Find the unknown resistor R4. Figure below shows Wien
bridge circuit.

Solution
Given: R1 = 8 kΩ, R2 = 30 kΩ, R3 = 1kΩ, R4 = ? kΩ
R 30
R X = R 4 = R2 R 3 = × 1 = 3.75 kΩ
1 8

Work Example 10
A Maxwell bridge is having bridge constants at balance as R1 = 470 kΩ , R2 = 5 kΩ and R3 = 100 kΩ .Find
the series equivalent of the unknown impedance. Figure below shows the circuit diagram of Maxwell
Bridge.

Solution
Given: R1 = 470 kΩ, R2 = 5 kΩ, R3 = 100 kΩ, R4 = ? kΩ
R2 5
RX = R4 = R3 = × 100 = 1.06 kΩ
R1 470

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Pressure Definition
The action of force against some opposite force. A force in the nature of thrust distributed over a surface.
The force acting against a surface within a closed container. A number of measurement units are used for
pressure. They are as follows:
 Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds per square inch (psi)
 Atmospheres (atm)

19
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
 Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa)*
 Torr = 1 mm mercury
 Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface due to the weight of the gases or air in the earth’s
atmosphere and is normally expressed at sea level as 14.7 psi (101.36 kPa). It is however, dependant on
atmospheric conditions. This is the pressure exerted by the envelope of air surrounding the earth surface.
Atmospheric pressure is usually determined by a mercury column barometer. The tube diameter is such
that capillary effects are minimum. Atmospheric pressure acts at the mercury surface in the container, and
the mercury vapour pressure exits at the top of mercury column in the tube. Atmospheric pressure varies
with altitude, because the air nearer the earth’s surface is compressed by air above. At sea level, value of
atmospheric pressure is close to 1.01325 bar or 760 mm of Hg column (= 10.33 m of water column). The
pressure decreases above sea level and at an elevation of 5000 ft (1500 m) drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122
kPa).

Absolute Pressure
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a vacuum and is expressed in pounds per square
inch absolute (psia). It is defined as the force per unit area due to the interaction of fluid particles amongst
themselves. A zero pressure intensity will occur when molecular momentum is zero. Such a situation can
occur only when there is a perfect vacuum, i.e., a vanishingly small population of gas molecules or of
molecular velocity. Pressure intensity measured from this state of vacuum or zero pressure is called absolute
pressure. The silicon absolute pressure gauge has a built-in low-pressure reference, so it is calibrated to
measure absolute pressures. Absolute Pressure, P = Atmospheric Pressure, Patm + Gauge Pressure, Pg
Gauge Pressure and Vacuum Pressure
Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to atmospheric pressure and is normally expressed in
pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
20
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Vacuum is a pressure measurement made between total vacuum and normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi
or 101.36 kPa). Total vacuum is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be experienced in outer space.
Instruments and gauges used to measure fluid pressure generally measures the difference between the
unknown pressure ‘P’ and the existing atmospheric pressure. When the unknown pressure is more than the
atmospheric pressure the pressure is recorded by the instrument is called gauge pressure. A pressure reading
below the atmospheric pressure is known as vacuum pressure or negative pressure. Actual absolute pressure
is the sum of gauge pressure indication and the atmospheric pressure. Vacuum instruments are used to
measure pressures less than atmospheric pressure. The Bourdon tube, diaphragms, and bellows can be used
as vacuum gauges, but measure negative pressures with respect to atmospheric pressure.
Gauge Pressure, Pg = Absolute Pressure, P – Atmospheric Pressure, Patm
Vacuum Pressure, Pv = Atmospheric Pressure, Patm – Absolute Pressure, P

A vacuum is very difficult to achieve in practice. Vacuum pumps can only approach a true vacuum. Good
small volume vacuums, such as in a barometer, can be achieved. Pressures less than atmospheric pressure
are often referred to as “negative gauge” and are indicated by an amount below atmospheric pressure, for
example, 35 kPa gauge pressure would correspond to 67 kPa absolute pressure (assume atm = 101.35 kPa
absolute pressure).
 Instruments and gauges used to measure fluid pressure generally measures the difference between the
unknown pressure ‘P’ and the existing atmospheric pressure.
Differential Pressure
Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to another pressure and is expressed as the
difference between the two values. This would represent two points in a pressure or flow system and is
referred to as the delta p or ∆p

Work Example
The atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa. If a pressure gauge reads 58 kPa. What is the absolute pressure?
Solution
Given: Atmospheric pressure = 100 kPa, Pressure gauge = 58 kPa, Absolute pressure =?
Gauge Pressure, Pg = Absolute Pressure, P – Atmospheric Pressure, Patm
Pg = P − Patm → P = Patm − Pg = 100 + 58 = 𝟏𝟓𝟖 𝐤𝐏𝐚

Work Example
The atmospheric pressure is 200 kPa and the absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure whose
value is 120 kPa. What is the vacuum pressure?
21
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Solution
Given: Atmospheric pressure = 200 kPa, Absolute pressure = 120 kPa, Vacuum pressure =?
Vacuum Pressure, Pv = Atmospheric Pressure, Patm – Absolute Pressure, P
Pv = Patm − P = 200 − 120 = 𝟖𝟎 𝐤𝐏𝐚
Static Pressure and Total Pressure
Static pressure is defined as the force per unit area acting on a wall by a fluid at rest or flowing parallel
to the wall in a pipe line. Static pressure of a moving fluid is measured with an instrument which is at rest
relative to the fluid. Velocity Pressure = Total Pressure – Static Pressure.

Pressure Formulas
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure in a liquid. The pressure increases as the depth in a liquid increases.
This increase is due to the weight of the fluid above the measurement point. The pressure is given by:
P = ρgh = γh
Where: P is the pressure in N/m2 or Pascal, 𝜌 is the density in kg/m3, g is the gravity in m/s2, 𝛾 is the specific
weight in N/m3, h is the distance from the surface in m.
Head is sometimes used as a measure of pressure. It is the pressure in terms of a column of a particular
fluid, i.e., a head of 0.3 m of water is the pressure that would be exerted by a 0.3m tall column of water,
that is, 3 kPa.
The hydrostatic paradox states that the pressure at a given depth in a liquid is independent of the shape of
the container or the volume of liquid contained. The pressure value is a result of the depth and density. The
total pressure or forces on the sides of the container depend on its shape, but at a specified depth. Buoyancy
is the upward force exerted on an object immersed or floating in a liquid. The weight is less than it is in air
due to the weight of the displaced fluid. The upward force on the object causing the weight loss is called
the buoyant force and is given by: FB = ρgV = γV
Where: FB is the buoyant force in N, 𝛾 is the specific weight in N/m3, V is the volume of the liquid displaced
in m3.
Pascal’s law states that the pressure applied to an enclosed liquid (or gas) is transmitted to all parts of the
fluid and to the walls of the container. This is demonstrated in the hydraulic press.

Force, FS exerted on the small piston (ignoring friction), will exert a pressure in the fluid which is given by
Fs
P=
As

22
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Where: AS is the cross-sectional area of the smaller piston.
Since the pressure is transmitted through the liquid to the second cylinder (Pascal’s law), the force on the
larger piston (FL) is given by: FL = PAL
Where: AL is the cross-sectional area of the large piston (assuming the pistons are at the same level), from
F
which; FL = As AL
s
It can be seen that the force FL is magnified by the ratio of the piston areas. This principle is used extensively
in hoists, hydraulic equipment, and the like.
Work Example
In hydraulic press, if the area of the small piston AS is 0.3 m2 and the area of the large piston AL is 5 m2,
what is the force FL on the large piston, if the force FS on the small piston is 85 N?
Solution
Given: AS = 0.3 m2, AL is 5 m2, FS = 85 N, FL =?
85
FL = × 5 = 𝟏𝟒𝟏𝟔. 𝟕 𝐍
0.3

Classification of Pressure Measuring Devices

There are many techniques for the measurement of pressure and vacuum. Instruments used to measure
pressure are called pressure gauges. Manometers are used for the measurement of very low pressures as
well as vacuum especially in hydraulic laboratories.

Manometers
Manometers are used for measuring pressures by balancing the fluid column of fluid against another column
of fluid of known specific gravity. Manometers can be classified as:
1. Simple Manometers
a. Piezometer
b. U-tube manometer
2. Micro Manometers (or Single Column Manometers)
a. Vertical Column Micro Manometer
b. Inclined Column Micro Manometer
3. Differential Manometers
a. Upright U-tube Differential Manometer
b. Inverted U-tube Differential Manometer

Simple Manometers
It consists of a glass tube with one end open to the atmosphere and other end connected to a point at which
pressure is to be measured.

Piezometer
It consists of glass tube connected to a vessel or pipe at which static pressure is to be measured. It is the
simplest of all the manometers (Figure below). It is used to measure very low pressures.

Piezometer

23
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
A piezoelectric pressure gauge is shown in Figure below. Piezoelectric crystals produce a voltage between
their opposite faces when a force or pressure is applied to the crystal. This voltage can be amplified and the
device used as a pressure sensor. It is a vertical transparent glass tube, the upper end of which is open to
atmosphere and the lower end is in communication with the gauge point ; a point in the fluid container at
which pressure is to be measured. Rise of fluid in the tube above a certain gauge point is a measure of the
pressure at that point.

The pressure in piezometer is given by the following equation.

Where,
= density of liquid
h = height of liquid in the piezometer from the centre of the pipe.
g = acceleration due to gravity.

U- Tube Manometer
Manometers are good examples of pressure measuring instruments, though they are not as common as they
used to be because of the development of new, smaller, more rugged, and easier to use pressure sensors.
This simplest and useful pressure measuring consists of a transparent tube bent in the form of letter U and
filled with a particular liquid whose density is known. The choice of a particular manometric liquid upon
the pressure range and nature of the fluid whose pressure is sought. U–tube manometers consist of U-shaped
glass tubes partially filled with a liquid. When there are equal pressures on both sides, the liquid levels will
correspond to the zero point on a scale.
P1 = P2 + ρgh

Where:
P1 and P2 are absolute pressure in N/m2
h is the difference in level of liquid , m
ρ is the density of manometer fluid in kg m-3
g is the acceleration due to gravity ms-2
P1 − P2 = ρgh
P1 – P2 is the pressure differential applied across the manometer
However, if the limb Y is open to the atmosphere pressure. So, equation (3.1) above becomes

P1 – atmospheric pressure = ρgh

When a pressure is applied to one side of the U-tube that is higher than on the other side, as shown in Fig.
5.5b, the liquid rises higher in the lower pressure side, so that the difference in the heights of the two
columns of liquid compensates for the difference in pressure, as in equation below.

The pressure difference is given by:

P1 − P2 = ρg × difference in height of the liquid in the columns (h1 − h2 ) = γ(h1 − h2 )
24
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Where:
𝜌 is the density of the liquid in the manometer,
𝛾 is the specific weight of the liquid in the manometer.
P1 − P2 = ρg × (h1 − h2 ) = γ(h1 − h2 )

Simple U-tube Manometer.

The manometer is named so because it consists of a glass tube having the shape of alphabet 'U. One end is
open to the atmosphere and other end connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured.
Let
ρ1 = density of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
ρ2 = density of manometer liquid (assume mercury)
ω1 = weight density of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
ω2 = weight density of manometer liquid
S1 = Specific gravity of liquid for which pressure has to be determined
S2 = Specific gravity of manometer liquid

25
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

U-tube manometer
Density of Subtance
Sp. Gravity (s) =
Density of water

Inclined Single Column Manometer

Inclined manometers were developed to measure low pressures. The low-pressure arm is inclined, so that
the fluid has a longer distance to travel than in a vertical tube for the same pressure change. This gives a
magnified scale as shown in Figure below. This manometer is more sensitive. Due to inclination the
distance moved by heavy liquid in the right limb will be more.

P1 − P2 = ρg(h2 + h1 )
h2 = LSinθ
P1 − P2 = ρg(LSinθ + h1 )
A2
A1 h1 = A2 𝐿 → h1 = L
A1
A2
P1 − P2 = ρg(LSinθ + L)
A1
A2
P1 − P2 = ρgL (Sinθ + )
A1

26
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

The pressure differential is obtained thus

P1 = P2 + ρg (h + h1)
h = d sin ø
P1 = P2 + ρg (dsin ø + h1)
P1 - P2 = ρg (dsin ø + h1)
But A1h1 = A2 d
𝐴2
So, h1 = d
𝐴1
𝐴
P1 – P2 = ρgd (sin ø + 𝐴2 )
1
𝐴
If 𝐴2 is negligible for small A2 compared to A1, then
1
P1 - P2 = ρgd sin ø
Inclining the tube at an angle 300 to the horizontal will result in d =2h. This connotes that a length of scale
twice the normal would be obtained

Vertical Single Column Manometers or Well manometers

Well manometers are alternatives to inclined manometers for measuring low pressures using low-density
liquids. In the well manometer, one leg has a much larger diameter than the other leg, as shown in Figure
below. When there is no pressure difference the liquid levels will be at the same height for a zero reading.
An increase in the pressure in the larger leg will cause a larger change in the height of the liquid in the
smaller leg. The pressure across the larger area of the well must be balanced by the same volume of liquid
rising in the smaller leg. The effect is similar to the balance of pressure and volume in hydraulic jacks. To
start with, let both limbs of the manometer be exposed to atmospheric pressure. Then the liquid level in the
wider limb (also called reservoir well basin) and narrow limbs will correspond to position 0-0.

27
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

P1 − P2 = ρg(h1 + h2 )
A1 h1 = A2 h2
A
h1 = 2 h2
A1
A
P1 − P2 = ρg(A2 h2 + h2 )
1
A
P1 − P2 = ρgh2 (A2 + 1)
1

Industrial U-Tube Manometer

The industrial U-tube manometer is the device for measurement of higher-pressure differential then the
simple U-tube manometer which does not measure more than a pressure of 1.25 mHg or 162 kN/m-2.
On this system, one limb has a much larger diameter than the other. Another property is that the limb is
made of steel.
A higher pressure P1 is applied to the smaller limb while a lower pressure is applied to the larger limb.
These result in a fall in the liquid level at the smaller and a rise in the liquid level at the larger limb. This
continue until a pressure balance is struck thus,
P1 = P2 + ρgH
Since H = h+d
P1 = P2 + ρg (h+d)

Where:
H is the total difference between in level of liquid, m
h is the difference between the level in the smaller limb and the zero-level m

Industrial U-tube manometer

Since the volume of liquid leaving the smaller limb must equal to that passing into the larger limb then,
A1h =A2 d
𝐴2 𝑑
h=
𝐴1

Where:
A1 is the cross-sectional area of the smaller limb
A2 is the cross-sectional area of the larger limb m2
𝐴
P1 = P2 + ρg (d + 𝐴2 𝑑)
1
𝐴
P1-P2 = ρgd (1 + 𝐴2 )
1
P1 – P2 is the pressure differential

Cistern Manometer

28
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
This is a type of manometer whose working is same as in the industrial U – tube except that the smaller
limb is inserted directly into the larger limb. Also in practice the cistern diameter (larger limb) is made so
large compared with the smaller limb that the drop in level of liquid, d, from the zero level in the cistern is
infinitesimal and hence negligible.
In this system, if a differential pressure (P1 – P2) is applied to the manometer (fig 3.21).

Cistern Manometer

P1 – P2 = ρg (d + h)
Similarly, A1d = A2h
𝐴 𝑑
d= 2
𝐴1
𝐴2
P1 - P2 = ρgh (1 + )
𝐴1
𝐴2
If the value of is so infinitesimal that it is negligible then equation above reduces to
𝐴1
P1 – P2 = ρgh
This means that the pressure differential can be determine by measuring the rise in the level of liquid h in
the smaller tube only.

The Two Liquid U-Tube Manometer

During the measurement of the pressure of certain liquid using U tube manometer it is often necessary to
separate the liquid from manometer liquid using a sealing fluid chamber are also used with sealing fluids.
These are simple reservoir with larger diameter than that of the manometer tube in such a way that the level
of the seal fluid will not change significantly on the application of pressure.
A typical U tube manometer having sealing chamber and sealing fluid is shown in fig 3.23 below the
pressure differential is shown as follow
P1 – ρ1 g h2 = P2 + ρ1 g h1 + ρ2 gh
P1 – P2 = p1 g (h1 – h2) + ρ2 g h
P1 – P2 = (ρ2 – ρ1) gh

29
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

U-tube Manometer with Sealing Chamber and Sealing Fluid

Barometers
Barometers are used for measuring atmospheric pressure. A simple barometer is the mercury barometer
shown in Figure below. It is now rarely used due to its fragility and the toxicity of mercury. The aneroid
(no fluid) barometer is favoured for direct reading.

Diaphragms Gauges
Pressure can be applied to one side of the film for gauge sensing or pressures can be applied to both sides
of the film for differential or absolute pressure sensing. The diaphragm gets deflected in accordance with
the pressure differential across the side; deflection being towards the low pressure side. The pressure to be
measured is applied to diaphragm causing it to deflect the deflection being proportional to applied pressure.
The movement of diaphragm depends on its thickness and diameter. The pressure deflection relation for a
16Et4 δ δ 3
flat diaphragm with adjustable clamped is given by: P = 4(1− ν2) [ + 0.488 ( ) ]
3r t t

Pirani Gauge
The Pirani gauge and special setups using thermocouples can measure vacuums down to about 5 torr (0.67
kPa). These methods are based on the relation of heat conduction and radiation from a heating element to
the number of gas molecules per unit volume in the low-pressure region, which determines the pressure.
30
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Ionization Gauges
Ionization gauges can be used to measure pressures down to about 2 torr (0.27 kPa). The gas is ionized with
a beam of electrons and the current is measured between two electrodes in the gas. The current is
proportional to the number of ions per unit volume, which is also proportional to the gas pressure.

McLeod Gauge
McLeod gauge is a device set up to measure very low pressures, that is, from 1 to 50 torr (0.13 to 6.7 kPa).
The device compresses the low-pressure gas so that the increased pressure can be measured. The change in
volume and pressure can then be used to calculate the original gas pressure, providing that the gas does not
condense.

Work Example 1
A U-tube manometer containing mercury used to measure a differential air of 50 kNm-2. Calculate the
difference levels of the 60 kN mercury in the two side of manometer assuming the density of air is
negligible. The density is 13600 kgm-3.

Solution

P1 = P2 + ρgh for a U tube manometer

P1 - P2 = 50 kN/m2

P = 13600 kg m-3
31
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
G = 9.81ms-2

50 x 103 (𝑁⁄𝑚2) = 13600 (kgm-3) x 9.81 (ms-2) x h

50 ×103
h= 13600 ×9.81

h = 0.3747m
h ≈ 375 mm = difference in level of mercury in the two sides of the manometer

Work Example 2
A cistern manometer containing mercury of density 13600 kgm-3 has a cistern of area 0.002 m2 and a tube
of area 4 × 10-5 m2. Calculate the height if the measurement column if the applied differential pressure is
70 kN/m2

Solution

P1 - P2 = 70 × 103 Nm-2

A1 = 0.02 m2

A2 = 4 × 10-5 m2

p= 13000kgm-3

𝐴2
P1 - P2 = ρgh (1 + ) for cistern manometer
𝐴1

4 ×10−5
70 × 103 = 13600 × 9.81 × h (1 + 0.02
)

70 ×103
h= 0.02+4∗10−5
13600× 9.81 ×
0.02

32
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
70 ×103
`h = 13600× 9.81 ×1.002

h = 0.5236 m

h ≈ 524 mm = Height of measurement column

MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL

Liquid level refers to the position or height of a liquid surface above a datum line. Level measurements are
made to a certain quantity of the liquid held with in a container. Level offers both the pressure and rate of
flow in and out of the container and as such its measurement and control is an important function in a
variety of processes. The task of liquid level measurement may be accomplished by direct methods and
indirect methods. The most commonly used method of indirectly measuring a liquid level is to measure the
hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container. The depth can then be extrapolated from the pressure
and the specific weight of the liquid can be calculated using Equation below. The pressure can be measured
by any of the methods given in the section on pressure. The dial on the pressure gauge can be calibrated
directly in liquid depth. The depth of liquid can also be measured using bubblers, radiation, resistive tapes,
and by weight measurements.

Level Formulas
Pressure is often used as an indirect method of measuring liquid levels. Pressure increases as the depth
increases in a fluid. The pressure is given by: ∆P = γ∆h → γ = ρg
Where: ∆p is the change in pressure, 𝛾 is the specific weight (N/m3), ∆h is the change in depth, ρ is the
density, g is the gravity
Buoyancy is an indirect method used to measure liquid levels. The level is determined using the buoyancy
of an object partially immersed in a liquid. The buoyancy force, FB or upward force (Upthrust) on a body
in a liquid can be calculated from the equation:
FB
FB = ρgAh = γ × A × h → h =
γ×A
Where: A is the cross-sectional area of the object and h is the immersed depth of the object.
The liquid level is then calculated from the weight of a body in a liquid WL, which is equal to its weight in
air minus Buoyancy force (WA − FB ), from which we get:
Uptrust, FB = WA − WL → WL = WA − FB
WA − WL
d=
γ×A
The weight of a container can be used to calculate the level of the material in the container. The volume V
of the material in the container is given by:
2
∏𝑑2 ℎ
Volume = Area × depth → V = Ah = ∏r × ℎ =
4
Where: r is the radius of the container and h is the depth of the material. The weight of material W in a
container is given by: W = mg = ρVg = γV
A number of factors affect the choice of sensor for level measurement, such as pressure on the liquid, liquid
temperature, turbulence, volatility, corrosiveness, accuracy needed, single-point or continuous
measurement, direct or indirect, particulates in a liquid, free flowing solids, and so forth.
Floats are often used to sense fluid levels because they are unaffected by particulates, can be used for
slurries, can be used with a wide range of liquid specific weights, and flat floats due to their area are less
susceptible to turbulence on the surface of the liquid.
𝛾𝑙 ∏𝑑2 ℎ
The float displaces its own weight of liquid as follows: Float weight = Buoyancy force, FB =
4
Where: 𝛾𝐿 is the specific weight of the liquid, d is the diameter, h is the immersion depth of the float
33
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
When the float is used to measure one or more metre of liquid depth, any change in h due to large changes
in 𝛾𝐿 will have minimal effect on the measured liquid depth. Displacers must never be completely
submerged when measuring liquid depth and must have a specific weight greater than that of the liquid.

Work Example
A pressure gauge located at the base of an open tank containing a liquid with a specific weight of 9 kN/m3
registers 80 kN/m2 or kPa. What is the depth of the fluid in the tank?
∆P = γ∆h → γ = ρg
Solution
Given: P = 80 kN/m2, γ = 9 kN/m3
∆P 80
∆h = = = 8.88 m ≅ 𝟗 𝐦
γ 9

Sight Glass
Sight Glass (also called a gauge glass) is another method of liquid level measurement. It is used for the
continuous indication of liquid level within, tank or vessel. It is a direct level sensing. Sight glass (open
end/differential) or gauge is the simplest method for direct visual reading. As shown in Figure below. The
sight glass is normally mounted vertically adjacent to the container. The liquid level can then be observed
directly in the sight glass. The top of the sight glass must have the same pressure conditions as the top of
the liquid or the liquid levels in the tank and sight glass will be different. It can be used with a pressurized
container (boiler) or a container with volatile, flammable, hazardous, or pure liquids.

Float-type
FIoat-Type Level Indicator moat operated level indicator is used to measure liquid levels in a tank in
which a float rests on the surface of liquid and follows the changing level of liquid. The movement of the
float is transmitted to a pointer through a suitable mechanism which indicates the level on a calibrated
scale. Various types of floats are used such as hollow mewl spheres, cylindrical-shaped floats and disc
shaped floats. Floats (angular arm or pulley) are shown in Figures below. The figures show types of simple
float sensors. The figure shows two types of simple float sensors. The float material is less dense than the
density of the liquid and floats up and down on top of the material being measured. This method can be
used with either liquids or free flowing solids.
An example of the use of this type of sensor is the monitoring of the fuel level in the tank of an automobile.
𝛾𝑙 ∏𝑑2 ℎ
The float displaces its own weight of liquid as follows: Float weight = Buoyancy force, FB =
4

34
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Work Example
A 3.5 cm diameter float is used to measure acetone levels of specific weight 8 kN/m3. What is the float
weight sensed if the liquid level changes by 52 cm?
Solution
Given: γL = 8 kN/m3, d = 3.5 cm = 0.035 m, h = 52 cm = 0.52 m
γL ∏d2 L 8 ×3.142 ×0.0352 ×0.52
FB = = = 0.004 kN = 4 N
4 4

Displacer
A displacer with force sensing is shown in Figure below. This device uses the change in the buoyant force
on an object to measure the changes in liquid level. The displacers must have a higher specific weight than
that of the liquid level being measured and have to be calibrated for the specific weight of the liquid. A
force or strain gauge measures the excess weight of the displacer. There is only a small movement in this
type of sensor compared to a float sensor. The buoyant force on a cylindrical displacer is given by
γL ∏d2 L
Buoyancy force, FB =
4
Where: 𝛾𝐿 is the specific weight of the liquid, d is the float diameter, L = length of the displacer submerged
in the liquid
The weight as seen by the force sensor is given by: Weight on Force Sensor = Weight of Displacer – FB
It should be noted that the units must be in the same measurement system and the liquid must not rise above
the top of the displacer or the displacer must not touch the bottom of the container.

Work Example
A displacer with a diameter of 20 cm is used to measure changes in water level of specific weight 10 kN/m3.
If the water level changes by 30 cm. what is the change in force sensed by the force sensor?
Solution
Given: γL = 10 kN/m3, d = 20 cm = 0.2 m, h = 30 cm = 0.3 m
γL ∏d2 L
FB =
4
Change in force = (weight of dispenser − FB1 ) – (weight of dispenser − FB2 ) = FB2 – FB1

35
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
γL ∏d2 L 10 ×3.142 ×0.22 ×0.3
FB2 – FB1 = = = 0.094 kN = 94 N
4 4

Hook-type Level Indicator

When the level of liquid in an open tank is measured directly on a scale (the scale may be in the liquid
or outside it), it is sometimes difficult to read the level accurately because of parallax error. In this case
a hook type of level indicator is used.

Probes for Measuring Liquid Levels

Probes for measuring liquid levels fall into three categories, i.e., conductive, capacitive and ultrasonic.
Conductive Probes
Conductive probes are used for single-point measurements in liquids that are conductive and non-volatile
as a spark can occur. Conductive probes are shown in Figure (a) below. Two or more probes as shown can
be used to indicate set levels. If the liquid is in a metal container, the container can be used as the common
probe.
When the liquid is in contact with two probes the voltage between the probes causes a current to flow
indicating that a set level has been reached. Thus, probes can be used to indicate when the liquid level is
low and to operate a pump to fill the container. Another or a third probe can be used to indicate when the
tank is full and to turn off the filling pump.
Capacitive Probes
Capacitive probes are used in liquids that are non-conductive and have a high dielectric, 𝜀 and can be used
for continuous level monitoring. The capacitive probe shown in Figure (b) below consists of an inner rod
with an outer shell; the capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge. In the portion
out of the liquid, air serves as the dielectric between the rod and outer shell. In the immersed section, the
dielectric is that of the liquid that causes a large capacitive change, if the tank is made of metal it can serve
as the outer shell. The capacitance change is directly proportional to the level of the liquid. The dielectric
constant of the liquid must be known for this type of measurement. The dielectric constant can vary with
temperature so that temperature correction may be required.

Work Example

36
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
A capacitive sensor is 1000 mm high and has a capacitance of 25 pF in air and 283 pF when immersed in
a gasoline liquid. The dielectric constant of the liquid is 2, what is the gasoline level?
Solution
Given: Ca is the capacitance in air = 25 pF, Cd is the capacitance in liquid = 283 pF 10 kN/m3, r is the
height of the capacitive sensor = 1000 mm = 1 m, ε is the dielectric constant of the liquid = 2, d is the depth
or level of the liquid between the plates
d
The capacitance (Cd) is given by: Cd = Ca ε + Ca
r
(Cd − Ca )r
The liquid level is given by: d =
εCa
(Cd − Ca )r (283 pF− 25 pF)×1
The gasoline level, d = = = 5.2 m
εCa 2 ×25pf

Ultrasonic Probes Level Indicator Method

Ultrasonic liquid level works on the principle of reflection of the sound wave from the surface of the liquid.
Ultrasonic can be used for single point or continuous level measurement of a liquid or a solid. The schematic
arrangement of liquid level measurement by ultrasonic liquid level gauge is illustrated below. A single
ultrasonic transmitter and receiver can be arranged with a gap as shown in Figure (a) below to give single-
point measurement. The transmitter ‘T’ sends the ultrasonic wave towards the free surface of the liquid.
The wave gets reflected from the surface. The reflected waves received by the receiver ‘R’. As soon as
liquid fills the gap, ultrasonic waves from the transmitter reach the receiver. The time taken by the
transmitted wave to travel to the surface of the liquid and then back to the receives gives the level of
the liquid. As the level of the liquid reaches the time taken to reach the surface of the liquid and then
back to receiver also changes. Thus the change in the level of the liquid are determined accurately.
A setup for continuous measurement is shown in Figure (b) below. Ultrasonic waves from the transmitter
are reflected by the surface of the liquid to the receiver; the time for the waves to reach the receiver is
measured. The time delay gives the distance from the transmitter and receiver to the surface of the liquid,
from which the liquid level can be calculated knowing the velocity of ultrasonic waves. As there is no
contact with the liquid, this method can be used for solids and corrosive and volatile liquids. In a liquid the
transmitter and receiver can also be placed on the bottom of the container and the time measured for a signal
to be reflected from the surface of the liquid to the receiver to measure the depth of the liquid. The speed
1 𝑑
of ultrasonic waves is given by: v = fλ = → 𝜆→
𝑇 𝑡
Where: v is the speed of the ultrasonic waves, f is the frequency of the ultrasonic waves, λ is the wavelength
which is equivalent to distance, d, T is the period which is equivalent to time, t for a pulse of energy to
travel to an object and be reflected back to a receiver.

37
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Work Example
An ultrasonic transmitter and receiver are placed 3 m above the surface of a liquid. How long will the sound
waves take to travel from the transmitter to the receiver? Assume the velocity of sound waves is 340 m/s
Solution
Given: v = 340 m/s, d = 3 m
3 3
340 = → = 0.009s
𝑡 340

Work Example
if the liquid question above is lowered to 2 m, what is the increase in time for the sound waves to go from
the transmitter to the receiver?
Solution
Given: v = 340 m/s, d = 2 m
2 2
340 = → = 0.006s
𝑡 340

Cryogenic Fuel Level Indicator

A gas which changes its state (gaseous state into liquid state). When cooled to very low temperatures is
known as cryogenic fluid. A cryogenic fluid exists in liquid state at very low temperatures, which are
usually less than the temperature levels at which a superconductor exhibits zero resistance characteristic.

Bubbler Level Indicator

The Bubbler type level indicator is also known as purge type of liquid level meter. Bubbler devices require
a supply of clean air or inert gas. The setup is shown in Figure below. The bubbler tube is dipped in the
tank such that its lower end is at zero level. Gas or air is forced through a tube whose open end is close to
the bottom of the tank. The specific weight of the gas or air is negligible compared to the liquid and can be
ignored. The pressure required to force the liquid out of the tube is equal to the pressure at the end of the
tube due to the liquid, which is the depth of the liquid multiplied by the specific weight of the liquid. The
pressure indicated by the pressure gauge is directly proportional to the height of the level in the tank
provided the gauge is calibrated properly in unit of liquid level. This method can be used with corrosive
liquids as the material of the tube can be chosen to be corrosion resistant.

38
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
Work Example
How far below the surface of the water is the end of a bubbler tube, if bubbles start to emerge from the end
of the tube when the air pressure in the bubbler is 148 kPa? Take density of water, 𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3
Solution
Given: P = 148 kPa, 𝜌 = 1000 kg/m3, 𝛾 = ρg = 1000 × 10 = 10000 N/m3 = 10 kN/m3
148
h= = 14.8 m
10

Radiation Level Indicator

Radiation methods are sometimes used in cases where the liquid is corrosive, very hot, or detrimental to
installing sensors. For single-point measurement only one transmitter and a detector are required. If several
single-point levels are required, a detector will be required for each level measurement as shown in Figure
below. The disadvantages of this system are the cost and the need to handle radioactive material.

Resistive Tapes Level Indicator

Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels. A resistive element is placed in close proximity to a
conductive strip in an easily compressible nonconductive sheath; the pressure of the liquid pushes the
resistive element against the conductive strip, shorting out a length of the resistive element proportional to
the depth of the liquid. The sensor can be used in liquids or slurries, it is cheap but is not rugged or accurate,
it is prone to humidity problems, and measurement accuracy depends on material density.

Load cells Level Indicator

Load cells can be used to measure the weight of a tank and its contents. The weight of the container is
subtracted from the reading, leaving the weight of the contents of the container. Knowing the cross-
sectional area of the tank and the specific weight of the material, the volume and/or depth of the contents
can be calculated. This method is well suited for continuous measurement and the material being weighed
does not come into contact with the sensor. Figure below shows two elements that can be used in load
sensors for measuring force.

39
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Work Example
What is the depth of the liquid in a container, if the specific weight of the liquid is 13 kN/m3; the container
weights 20 kg and is 500 mm diameter? A load cell measures a total weight of 170 kg.
Solution
Given: m = 20 kg, WC = mg = 20 × 10 = 200 N, 𝛾 = 13 kN/m3 = 13000 N/m3, WL = mg =170 × 10 = 1700
N, d = 500 mm = 0.5 m
Weight of liquid = 1700 – 200 = 1500 N
Weight of liquid, W = 𝛾𝑉
𝑊 1500
Volume of liquid, V = = = 0.115 m3
𝛾 13000
𝜋𝑑2 ℎ
Volume of liquid, V =
4
2
3.142 × 0.5 × h 0.115 × 4
0.115 = → depth, h = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟗 𝐦
4 3.142 × 0.52

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW
Measurement of fluid velocity, flow rate and flow quantity with varying degree of accuracy or a
fundamental necessity in almost all the flow situations of engineering. Studying ocean or air currents,
monitoring gas input into a vacuum chamber, measuring blood movement in a vein. The scientist or
engineer is faced with choosing a method to measure flow. For experiment procedures, it may be necessary
to measure the rates of flow either into or out of the engines. “Pumps, compressors and turbines”. The
Bernoulli equation is an equation for flow based on the law of conservation of energy, which states that the
total energy of a fluid or gas at any one point in a flow is equal to the total energy at all other points in the
flow. The Bernoulli equation defines the relationship between fluid velocity (v), fluid pressure (p), and
height (h) above some fixed point for a fluid flowing through a pipe of varying cross-section, and is the
starting point for understanding the principle of the differential pressure flowmeter.

Thus, the sum of the pressure head (p/ρg), the velocity head (v/2g), and potential head (h) is constant
along a flow streamline. The term “head” is commonly used because each of these terms has the unit of
meters. Bernoulli equation:

40
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
P1 V12 P2 V22
+ + h1 = + + h2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

Assumes that the fluid is frictionless (zero viscosity) and of constant density (incompressible). Bernoulli’s
equation can be used to show how a restriction in a pipe can be used to measure flow rate. Consider the
pipe section shown in figure above. Since the pipe is horizontal, h1 = h2.
P1 v12 P2 v22 P1 − P2 v22 − v12 2(P1 − P2 )
+ + h1 = + + h2 → = → = v22 − v12
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρ 2 ρ
The continuity equation states that if the overall flow rate in a system is not changing with time, the flow
rate in any part of the system is constant. From which we get the following equation:
Volume flow rate or Quantity of discharge, Q = Av → Q1 = Q2 → A1 v1 = A2 v2 (m3/s)
Mass flow rate ṁ is related to volume flow rate Q by:
Mass,m = Density, ρ × Volume, V, mass flow rate, ṁ = ρQ, ṁ1 = ṁ2 , ρA1 v1 = ρA2 v2 , A1 v1 = A2 v2
(kg/s)
v2 A1 A1
= → v2 = v
v1 A2 A2 1
2(P1 − P2 )
2(P1 − P2 ) 𝑣 1
2 2(P1 − P2 ) ρ
= v22 − v12 → v22 (1 − ( ) ) = → v22 =
ρ 𝑣2 ρ 𝑣 2
(1 − ( 1 ) )
𝑣2
2(P1 − P2 ) 2(P1 − P2 )
ρ ρ
v2 = √ 2 → v2 = √
𝑣 𝐴2 2
(1 − ( 1 ) ) (1 − ( ) )
𝑣2 𝐴1
2(P1 − P2 )
ρ
Q = Av = A1 v1 = A2 v2 = A2 √ 𝐴 2
(1− ( 2 ) )
𝐴1

Since, P = ρgh
v2 = E √2gh
Q = Cd A2 E √2gh

The Orifice Plate

The orifice plate is the simplest and cheapest type of differential pressure flow meter. It is simply a plate
with a hole of specified size and position cut in it, which can then clamped between flanges in a pipeline.
The increase that occurs in the velocity of a fluid as it passes through the hole in the plate
results in a pressure drop being developed across the plate. After passing through this restriction, the
fluid flow jet continues to contract until a minimum diameter known as the vena contracta is reached.
The flow rate is proportional to the square root of the difference in pressure across the orifice plate.
41
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
If Equation above is used to calculate volumetric flow rate from a measurement of the pressure drop across
the orifice plate, then an error would result. This is because A2 should strictly be the area of the vena
contracta, which of course is unknown. In addition, turbulence between the vena contracta and the pipe
wall results in an energy loss that is not accounted for in this equation. To overcome the problems caused
by the practical application of Equation above, two empirically determined correction factors are added.
After some reorganization Equation above can be written as:
2(P1 − P2 )
ρ
Q = Av = A1 v1 = A2 v2 = A2 √ 𝐴 2
(1− ( 2 ) )
𝐴1

Where Cd is the discharge coefficient that is dependent on the shape and size of the orifice.
v2 = E √2gh
1
Q = Cd A2 v2 → Cd A2 E√2gh → E = 𝐴 2
1− ( 2 )
𝐴1

The Venturi Tube

The classical or Herschel Venturi tube is the oldest type of differential pressure flowmeter, having first
been used in 1887. As Figure below shows, a restriction is introduced into the flow in a more gradual way
than for the orifice plate. The resulting flow through a Venturi tube is closer to that predicted in theory by
Equation above and so the discharge coefficient Cd is much nearer unity, being typically 0.95. In addition,
the permanent pressure loss caused by the Venturi tube is lower, but the differential pressure is also lower
than for an orifice plate of the same diameter ratio. The smooth design of the Venturi tube means that it is
less sensitive to erosion than the orifice plate, and thus more suitable for use with dirty gases or liquids.
The Venturi tube is also less sensitive to upstream disturbances, and therefore needs shorter lengths of
straight pipework upstream of the meter than the equivalent orifice plate or nozzle. Like the orifice plate
and nozzle, the design, installation, and use of the Venturi tube is covered by a number of international
standards. The major disadvantages of the Venturi tube flowmeter are its size and cost. It is more difficult,
and therefore more expensive to manufacture than the orifice plate. Since a Venturi tube can be typically
6 diameters long, it can become cumbersome to use with larger pipe sizes, with associated maintenance of
upstream and downstream pipe lengths also becoming a problem.

42
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

The Nozzle
The nozzle combines some of the best features of the orifice plate and Venturi tube. It is
compact and yet, because of its curved inlet, has a discharge coefficient close to unity. There are a number
of designs of nozzle, but one of the most commonly used in Europe is the ISA-1932 nozzle, while in the
U.S. is the ASME long radius nozzle is more popular. Both of these nozzles are covered by international
standards.
The smooth inlet of the nozzle means that it is more expensive to manufacture than the orifice plate
as the curvature of the inlet changes with diameter ratio, although it is cheaper than the Venturi tube.
The device has no sharp edges to erode and cause changes in calibration, and thus is well suited for use
with dirty and abrasive fluids. The nozzle is also commonly used for high-velocity, high-temperature
applications such as steam metering. A variation of the nozzle is the sonic (or critical flow Venturi) nozzle,
which has been used both as a calibration standard for testing gas meters and a transfer standard in
interlaboratory comparisons.

Rotameter
The rotameter is the most extensively used form of the variable area flow meter. It consists of a vertical
tapered tube with a float which is free to move up or down within the tube as shown in Figure below. The
tube is made tapered so that there is a linear relationship between the flow rate and position in the float
within the tube. The free area between float and inside wall of the tube forms an annular orifice. The tube
is mounted vertically with the small end at the bottom. The fluid to be measured enters the tube from the
boom and passes upward around the float and exit at the top. When there is no flow through the
rotameter, the float rests at the bottom of the metering tube where the maximum diameter of the float
is approximately the same as the bore of the tube. When fluid enters the metering tube, the float
moves up, and the flow area of the annular orifice increases. The pressure differential across the
annular orifice is paranormal to the square of its flow area and to the square of the flow rate. The float
is pushed upward until the `limns force produced by the pressure differential across its upper and lower
surface is equal to the weight of the float If the flow rate rises, the pressure differential and hence the
lining force increases temporarily, and the float then rises, widening the annular orifice until the force
43
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success
cawed by the pressure differential is again equal to the weight of the Boat. Thus, the pressure differential
remains constant and the area of the annular orifice (i.e., free area between float and inside wall of the tube)
to which the float moves. Changes in proportion to the flow rate. Any decrease in flow rate causes the float
to drop to a lower position. Every float position corresponds to one particular flow rate for a quid of a given
density and viscosity.

Turbine Flow Meter

Principle: - the permanent magnet attached to the body of rotor is polarized at 90° to the axis of rotation.
When the rotor rotates due to the velocity of the fluid (V), the permanent magnet also rotates along with
the rotor. Therefore, a rotating magnetic field will be generated which is then cut by the pickup coil. Due
to this ac-voltage pulses are generated whose frequency is directly proportional to the flow rate.

MEASUREMENT OF SPEED, ACCELERATION AND VIBRATION

Speed is a rate variable defined as the time-rate of motion. Common forms and units of speed measurement
include: linear speed expressed in meters per second (m/s), and the angular speed of a rotating machine
usually expressed in radians per second (rad/s) or revolutions per minute (rpm). Measurement of rotational
speed has acquired prominence compared to the measurement of linear speed. Angular measurements are
made with a device called tachometer.
The definitions of a tachometer are: An instrument used to measure angular velocity as of shaft, either by
registering the number of rotations during the period of contact, or by indicating directly the number of
rotations per minutes” and instrument which either continuously indicates the value of rotary speed, or
continuously displays a reading of average speed over rapidly operated short intervals of time”
Tachometers may be broadly classified into two categories:
Mechanical tachometers
These tachometers employ only mechanical parts and mechanical movements for the measurement
of speed.

44
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Electrical tachometers.
Commutated capacitor tachometer: The operation of this tachometer is based on alternately charging and
discharging a capacitor.

MEASUREMENT OF FORCE, TORQUE AND POWER

An engineer is concerned not only with the generation of power by a prime-mover but is also required
to measure the useful output. That helps the engineer to know how well prime-mover is doing its job in
relation to the energy supplied to it. The terms related to engine output are:
Force Measurement
Mechanical load cells: The term load cell is used to describe a variety of force transducers which may
utilize the deflection or strain of elastic member, or the increase in pressure of enclosed fluids. The
resulting fluid pressure is transmitted to some form of pressure sensing device such as a manometer or
a bourdon tube pressure gauge. The gauge reading is identified and calibrated in units of force.

Hydraulic Load Cell

In a hydraulic load cell the force variable is impressed upon a diaphragm which deflects and there by
transmits the force to a liquid. The liquid medium, contained in a confined space, has a preload pressure
of the order of 2 bar. Application of force increases the liquid pressure; it equals the force magnitude
divided by the effective area of the diaphragm. The pressure is transmitted to and read on an accurate
pressure gauge calibrated directly in force units.

45
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Pneumatic Load Cell

A pneumatic load cell operates on the force-balance principle and employs a nozzle-flapper transducer
similar to the conventional relay system. A variable downward force is balanced by an upward force of
air pressure against the effective area of a diaphragm. Application of force causes the flapper to come
closer to the nozzle, and the diaphragm to deflect downwards. The nozzle opening is nearly shut-off and
this results into an increased back pressure in the system. The increased pressure acts on the
diaphragm, produces an effective upward force which tends to return the diaphragm to its preload
position.

Torques Measurement
The main purpose of torque measurement is to determine the mechanical power required or developed
by a machine. Torque measurement also helps in obtaining load information necessary for stress or
strain analysis. In some cases other variables are determined by measuring torque. For example, in the
case of rotating cylinder viscometer, measurement of torque developed at the fixed end of the
stationary cylinder help in determining the viscosity of the fluid between the movable and stationary
cylinder.

Mechanical Torsion Meter

The figure below shows the schematics of an elastic torsion bar meter wherein angular deflection of a
parallel length of shaft is used to measure torque. The angular twist over fixed length of the bar is observed
on a calibrated disk (attached to the rotating shaft) by using the stroboscope effect of intermittent viewing
and the persistence of vision. The system gives a varying angle of twist between the driving engine and
the driven load as the torque changes.

46
 Diligence, Determination and Discipline are Keys to Excellent Success

Optical Torsion Meter

The meter uses an optical method to detect the angular twist of a rotating shaft. The unit comprises two
castings A and B which are fitted to the shaft at a known distance apart. These castings are attached to each
other by a tension strip C which transmits torsion but has little resistance to bending. When the shaft is
transmitting a torque, there occurs a relative movement between the castings which results in partial
inclination between the two mirrors attached to the castings. The mirrors are made to reflect a light beam
onto a graduated scale; angular deflection of the light ray is then proportional to the twist of, and hence the
torque in, the shaft. For constant torque measurements from a steam turbine, the two mirrors are arranged
back to back and there occurs a reflection from each mirror during every half revolution. A second system
of mirrors giving four reflections per revolution is desirable when used with a reciprocating engine whose
torque varies during a revolution.

Electrical Torsion Meter

A system using two magnetic or photoelectric transducers, as shown in Figure below, involves two sets of
measurements.
 A count of the impulse from either slotted wheel. This count gives the frequency or shaft speed.
 A measure of the time between pulses from the two wheels. This signal is proportional to the twist of,
and hence torque T in the shaft. These two signals, T and L, can be combined to estimate the power
being transmitted by the shaft.

47