Cambridge (CIE) A Level Your notes
Physics
Hubble’s Law & the Big Bang Theory
Contents
Emission Spectra
Doppler Redshift
Hubble's Law & the Big Bang Theory
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Emission Spectra
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Emission spectra
Astronomers are very limited in how they can investigate objects in space
All of the techniques used involve analysing the light emitted from the star, or galaxy
One of these techniques involves analysing the emission and absorption spectra of
stars
More details on this can be found in the revision note on Line Spectra
Elements in the star, predominantly hydrogen and helium, absorb some of the emitted
wavelengths
Therefore, characteristic lines are present when the spectrum is analysed
Redshift on an emission spectrum
The top emission spectrum shows spectral lines of hydrogen measured on Earth. The
bottom emission spectrum show the shifted spectral lines of hydrogen measured from a
distant galaxy
When astronomers observe light from distant galaxies, they observe differences in the
spectral lines to the light from the Sun
The lines have the same characteristic pattern, meaning the element can still be easily
identified, they just appear to be shifted slightly
The lines in the spectra from distant galaxies show an increase in wavelength
The lines are moved, or shifted, towards the red end of the spectrum
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Doppler Redshift
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Redshift of EM radiation
The Doppler effect is defined as:
The apparent change in wavelength or frequency of the radiation from a source due to
its relative motion away from or toward the observer
On Earth, the Doppler effect of sound can be easily observed when sound waves move
past an observer at a notable speed
In space, the Doppler effect of light can observed when spectra of distant stars and
galaxies are observed, this is known as:
redshift if the object is moving away from the Earth, or
blueshift if the object is moving towards the Earth
Redshift is defined as:
The fractional increase in wavelength (or decrease in frequency) due to the source
and observer receding from each other
For non-relativistic galaxies, Doppler redshift can be calculated using:
∆λ ∆f v
λ
= f
= c
Where:
Δλ = shift in wavelength (m)
λ = wavelength emitted from the source (m)
Δf = shift in frequency (Hz)
f = frequency emitted from the source (Hz)
v = speed of recession (m s-1)
c = speed of light in a vacuum (m s-1)
Worked Example
The spectra below show dark absorption lines against a continuous visible spectrum.
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Your notes
A particle line in the spectrum of light from a source in the laboratory has a frequency
of 4.570 × 1014 Hz.
The same line in the spectrum of light from a distant galaxy has a frequency of 4.547 ×
1014 Hz.
What speed is the distance galaxy moving in relation to the Earth, and is it moving
towards or away from the Earth?
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Emitted frequency, f = 4.570 × 1014 Hz
Shift in frequency, Δf = (4.547 – 4.570) × 1014 = –2.3 × 1012 Hz
Speed of light, c = 3.0 × 108 m s–1
Step 2: Write down the Doppler redshift equation
∆f v
f
=c
Step 3: Rearrange for speed v, and calculate
c∆f 3.0 × 108 × 2 . 3 × 1012
= = = 1 . 5 × 106 m s−1
( ) ( )
v
f 4 . 570 × 1014
Step 4: Write a concluding sentence
The observed frequency is less than the emitted frequency (the light from a
laboratory source), therefore, the source is receding, or moving away, from the
Earth at 1.5 × 106 m s–1
Examiner Tips and Tricks
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In your exam, be sure to emphasise that redshift means the wavelength of spectral
lines increases towards the red end of the spectrum, do not say that the spectral lines
become red, as this is incorrect. Your notes
An expanding universe
After the discovery of Doppler redshift, astronomers began to realise that almost all the
galaxies in the universe are receding
This led to the idea that the space between the Earth and the galaxies must be
expanding
This expansion stretches out the light waves as they travel through space, shifting them
towards the red end of the spectrum
The more red-shifted the light from a galaxy is, the faster the galaxy is moving away from
Earth
Expanding universe balloon analogy
A balloon inflating is similar to the stretching of the space between galaxies
The expansion of the universe can be compared to dots on an inflating balloon
As the balloon is inflated, the dots all move away from each other
In the same way the rubber stretches when the balloon is inflated, space itself
stretches between galaxies
Just like the dots, the galaxies move away from each other, however, they
themselves do not move
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Hubble's Law & the Big Bang Theory
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Hubble's law & the Big Bang theory
Edwin Hubble investigated the light spectra emitted from a large number of galaxies
He used redshift data to determine the recession velocities of these galaxies, and
standard candles to determine the distances
From these measurements, he formulated a relationship, now known as Hubble’s law,
which states:
The recession speed of galaxies moving away from Earth is proportional to their
distance from the Earth
This can be calculated using:
v = H 0d
Where:
v = the galaxy's recessional velocity (m s-1)
d = distance between the galaxy and Earth (m)
H0 = Hubble's constant, or the rate of expansion of the universe (s-1)
This equation tells us:
The further away a galaxy is, the faster its recession velocity
The gradient of a graph of recession velocity against distance is equal to the Hubble
constant
Hubble's law graph
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A key aspect of Hubble’s law is that the furthest galaxies appear to move away the fastest
Age of the Universe Your notes
If the galaxies are moving away from each other, then they must’ve started from the
same point at some time in the past
If this is true, the universe likely began in an extremely hot, dense singular point which
subsequently began to expand very quickly
This idea is known as the Big Bang Theory
The redshift of galaxies and the expansion of the universe are now some of the most
prominent pieces of evidence to suggest this theory is true
The data from Hubble’s law can be extrapolated back to the point that the universe
started expanding i.e. the beginning of the Universe
Therefore, the age of the universe T0 is equal to:
1
T0 = H0
Current estimates of the age of the universe range from 13 – 14 billion years
There is still some discussion about the exact age of the universe, therefore, obtaining
accurate measurements for the Hubble constant is a top priority for cosmologists
Expansion of the Universe
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Tracing the expansion of the universe back to the beginning of time leads to the idea the
universe began with a “big bang”
Your notes
Worked Example
A galaxy is found to be moving away with a speed of 2.1 × 107 m s-1. The galaxy is at a
distance of 9.5 × 1024 m from Earth.
Assuming the speed has remained constant, what is the age of the universe in years?
Answer:
Step 1: Write down Hubble’s Law
v = H 0d
Step 2: Rearrange for the Hubble constant H0, and calculate
v 2 . 1 × 107
H0 = d
= 9 . 5 × 1024
= 2 . 2 × 10−18 s−1
Step 3: Write the equation for the age of the universe T0, and calculate
1 1
T0 = H = 2 . 2 × 10−18 = 4 . 52 × 1017 s
0
Step 4: Convert from seconds into years
4 . 52 × 1017
T0 = ( 365 × 24 × 60 × 60 )
= 1 . 43 × 1010 years
Therefore, the age of the universe is estimated to be about 14.3 billion years
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