MODULE-5

Transistors
• Introduction to BJT
• BJT Configurations, Types of BJT, Physical structure and symbolic
representations
• Common Base (CB) Input and Output Characteristics
• Common Emitter (CE) Input and Output Characteristics
• Common Collector (CC) Input and Output Characteristics
• Transistor as a Switch
• Transistor as an amplifier

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 MODULE-5. Transistor

Invented in 1948 by
John Bardeen,

Walter Brattain and

William Shockley
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 CONSTRUCTION OF BJT AND ITS SYMBOLS

➢ The word transistor comes from "transfer" + "resistor", indicating that it transfers
resistance from input to output, or more accurately, it controls a large output current
using a small input current.

➢ The Bipolar Transistor has three terminals with each terminal being given a name to
identify it from the other two.

➢ The term "bipolar" refers to the fact that both types of charge carriers—electrons and
holes—are involved in its operation.

➢ These three terminals are known as the Emitter (E), the Base (B) and the Collector (C)
respectively.

➢ There are two basic types of bipolar transistor construction, PNP and NPN, which
basically describes the physical arrangement of the P-type and N-type semiconductor
materials from which they are made.

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 The Bipolar Junction Transistor
The bipolar junction transistor is a 3-terminal device consisting 2 layers of n-type
material sandwiching a thin p-type layer or 2 layers of p-type material sandwiching a
thin layer of n-type material. These structures are appropriately called npn transistor
and pnp transistor, respectively. The terminals are called Emitter, Base and Collector.
The emitter is heavily doped while the base and collector are lightly doped.

2 pn junctions 2 pn junctions

Emitter Collector Emitter Collector

n p n p n p

Base Base

C C

B B
Circuit symbols

E The thickness of
E The base layer
pnp Is ~0.0067 of that
npn
Of the emitter or
collector layer
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Transistors is an active device with two basic functions: "switching" (digital
electronics) or "amplification" (analogue electronics).

➢ Bipolar Transistors are current controlled devices that control the amount of
current flowing through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage
applied to their base terminal acting like a current-controlled switch.

➢ Emitter: it is heavily doped layer, moderate in size and it is emits the majority
carriers (electrons for n-p-n transistor, holes for p-n-p transistor)

➢ Base: it is lightly doped layer, small in size and it allows the majority carriers
to pass through it and some of the majority carriers recombine in this layer.

➢ Collector: it is moderate doped layer, large in size and it collects majority

carriers coming from the emitter.

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 Schematic representation of pnp and npn BJTs

Emitter is heavily doped compared to collector. So, emitter

and collector are not interchangeable.

The base width is small compared to the minority carrier

diffusion length. If the base is much larger, then this will
behave like back-to-back diodes.

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 BJT circuit symbols

IE = IB + IC and VEB + VBC + VCE = 0 VCE =  VEC

•The direction of the arrow always points from the positive P-type region to the
negative N-type region for both transistor types, exactly the same as for the
standard diode symbol.

•As shown, the currents are positive quantities when the transistor is operated in
forward active mode.
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BJT circuit configurations and output characteristics

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 BJT biasing modes
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) operates in four different modes, depending on the
biasing (forward or reverse) of its two junctions: emitter-base (EB) and collector-base (CB)
junctions.

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 BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

➢ As the Bipolar Transistor is a three-terminal device, there are

basically three possible ways to connect it within an electronic
circuit with one terminal being common to both the
input and output.

➢ There are three types of configurations.

1. Common Base Configuration

2. Common Emitter Configuration
3. Common Collector Configuration

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 COMMON-BASE CONFIGURATION

➢ The configuration in which the base of the transistor is common between

emitter and collector circuit is called a common base configuration.

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1. Input or driving point characteristics.
2. Output or collector characteristics

Input or driving point characteristics:

The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current (IE) and the
input voltage (VBE) at constant output voltage (VCB)

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Output or collector characteristics:
The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current (IC)
and the output voltage (VCB) at constant input current IE
Common-base configuration has low
input resistance but a high output
resistance.
Current gain in common-base
configuration is denoted by Greek letter α
(alpha).
➢ Active Region: The transistor
amplifies signals in this region. The
emitter-base junction is forward biased
and collector-base junctions is reverse
biased.
➢ Cut-off Region: The transistor is in off
state Both the emitter-base and collector-
base junctions are reverse biased.
➢ Saturation Region: The transistor is in
on state. Both the emitter-base and
collector-base junctions are forward
biased.
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➢ It is defined as the ratio of collector current to the emitter
current.

α = Collector current / Emitter current

IC = α IE + ICBO

➢ As the collector current is always smaller than emitter current,

so the current gain (α) in common-base configuration is always
less than unity.

The value of α is typical from 0.9 ~ 0.998

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 COMMON-EMITTER CONFIGURATION

➢ The configuration in which the emitter of the transistor is common between base and collector
circuit is called a common emitter configuration.

➢ The input circuit is given between emitter and base, and the output is collected across the collector
and emitter

The supply voltage between base and emitter is denoted by VBE while the supply voltage between
collector and emitter is denoted by VCE.

➢ In common emitter (CE) configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output
current or collector current is denoted by IC.

➢ The common emitter amplifier has medium input and output impedance levels. So, the current
gain and voltage gain of the common emitter amplifier is medium. However, the power gain is high.

➢ The Common Emitter (CE) configuration is most widely used in amplifier and switching circuits.

Current gain in common-emitter configuration is denoted by a Greek letter ß (beta).

 It is defined as the ratio of collector current to the base current.

ß = Collector current / Base current

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Input or driving point characteristics: Output Characteristics:
The input characteristics describe the relationship The output characteristics describe the relationship
between input current (IB) and the input voltage between output current (IC) and the output voltage
(VBE) at constant output voltage (VCE) (VCE) at constant input current IB

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 Common Collector Configuration

➢ Input is applied between the base and the collector terminals.

➢ Input current is base current, denoted as IB and the input voltage is base emitter voltage,
denoted as VBE.
➢ Collector terminal which is taken as common grounded.
➢ The output current is the emitter current, denoted as IE and the output voltage is emitter
collector voltage and it is denoted as VCE

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Input Characteristics : Output Characteristics:
The input characteristics describe the The output characteristic of the common
relationship between input current (IB) and emitter circuit is drawn between the emitter
the input voltage (VBC) at constant output collector voltage VEC and output current IE at
voltage (VCE) constant input current IB.

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 TRANSISTOR AS AN AMPLIFIER
•A transistor is a three-layer semiconductor device that can act as an amplifier.

•By applying a small signal to the base, the transistor can control a larger signal flow
between the collector and emitter.

•This makes transistors useful in electronic circuits as amplifiers for audio, radio signals,
and more.

•Transistors are basically used as amplifiers for amplification. The process of raising the
amplitude of a weak signal without change in its frequency and shape is known as
'amplification―.

•For amplification, the transistor must be connected in the active region, where:
The emitter–base junction is forward biased.
The collector–base junction is reverse biased.

•This biasing arrangement keeps the transistor ready to accept small input signals and
transfer them to the output with greater strength.

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 Working of the Amplifier
•A small input signal Vi is applied across the emitter–base junction. Because this junction is
forward biased, even a tiny change in input voltage produces a change in emitter current IE.
The total current relation is: IE=IB+IC

•In active region operation, the collector current is almost proportional to the emitter
current: IC≈ α IE (α≈0.95 to 0.99)

•Hence, any small change in emitter current causes a nearly equal change in collector
current.

•Since the collector–base junction is reverse biased, the collector current flows through the
load resistor RL, and a voltage drop is produced across it: Vo=IC⋅RL
•Thus, a small input signal produces a large output signal across the load.
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Example

•Suppose there is a small change of 0.1 V at the input (emitter–base junction).

•This change increases the emitter current by 1 mA.

•The corresponding collector current change is also about 1 mA:

ΔIC ≈ α ΔIE ≈ 1 mA

•With a load resistance RL=5 kΩ:

Δvo =ΔIC×RL=1 mA×5 kΩ = 5 V

Therefore, a tiny input change of 0.1 V gives an output change of 5 V.

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 TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH

•A transistor can be used as a solid state switch. If the transistor is operated in the
saturation region, then it acts as closed switch and when it is operated in the cut
off region then it behaves as an open switch.

•The transistor operates as a Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) solid state switch.

•When a zero input signal applied to the base of the transistor, it acts as an open
switch.

•If a positive signal applied at the input terminal, then it acts like a closed switch.

•When the transistor operating as switch, in the cut off region the current through
the transistor is
zero and voltage across it is maximum, and in the saturation region the transistor
current is
maximum and voltage across is zero.

•Therefore, both the on – state and off – state power loss is zero in the transistor
switch.
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Operating Characteristics of Transistor
Circuit Diagram of Transistor as a Switch
Cut Off State (Open Switch)

•When transistor operates in the cut off region

shows the following characteristics –
• The input is grounded i.e. at zero potential.
• The VBE is less that cut – in voltage 0.7 V.
• Both emitter – base junction and collector – base
junction is reverse biased.
• The transistor is fully – off acting as open switch.
• The collector current IC = 0 A and output voltage
Vout = VCC

Cut Off Region

•To operate the transistor in this region, both the junctions of BJT are reverse biased and
the operating conditions of the transistor are as follows - input base current (IB) is equal
zero, hence the zero output collector current (IC).

•The collector –emitter voltage (VCE) is maximum. This results in a large depletion layer on
the junctions of the transistor and no current can flow through the device. Hence, the
transistor operates as Open Switch i.e. fully – off.

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 Saturation State (Closed Switch)
•The transistor operating in the saturation region exhibits following characteristics -
• The input is connected to VCC.
• Base – Emitter voltage is greater than cut – in voltage (0.7 V).
• Both the base – emitter junction and base – collector junction are forward biased.
• The transistor is fully – ON and operates as closed switch.
• The collector current is maximum

Saturation Region
•To operate the transistor in saturation region,
both the junctions of the BJT are forward biased,
hence the base current can be applied to its
maximum value which results in maximum
collector current.

•Due to forward biased junctions the width of

depletion layer is as small as possible causing
minimum collector – emitter voltage drop.

•Therefore current flowing through the transistor

having maximum value, thus the transistor
is operated as Closed Switch i.e. fully – ON. 29
Problem:
Find the minimum value of base current required to turn on the
transistor for a load current of 150 mA. For the transistor the β =
190. If the input voltage is raised to 10 V. Also calculate the
value of RB.

Solution
The base current of the transistor
IB=IC/β=150mA/190=0.789mA

The base resistance of the transistor

RB=(Vin-Vcutin)/IB=(10-0.70)/(0.789m)=11.78kΩ

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