CHAPTER 1

Data Communications
KEY CONCEPTS
1.1. INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................1
1.2. COMMUNICATION...................................................................................3
1.3. NETWORKS ...............................................................................................5
1.4. PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS...............................................................14
1.5. THE OSI REFERENCEMODEL ....................................................................15
1.6. SWITCHING ............................................................................................38

1.1. INTRODUCTION

 A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other to share
information andresources.
 The physical connection between networked computing devices is established using either cable
media or wirelessmedia.
 The best-known computer network is theInternet.

Advantages of Computer Networks

 Filesharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file
access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can easily see files
present on another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
 Resourcesharing: All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines,
modems, and scanners.
 Better connectivity andcommunications: It allows users to connect and communicate with each
other easily. Various communication applications included e-mail and groupware are used. Through
e-mail, members of a network can send message and ensure safe delivery of data to other
members, even in their absence.
2/ Data Communications and Computer Networks

 Internetaccess: Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single
computer attached to the network can experience the high speed internet.
 Entertainment: Many games and other means of entertainment are easily available on the internet.
Furthermore, Local Area Networks (LANs) offers and facilitates other ways of enjoyments, such as
many players are connected through LAN and play a particular game with each other from remote
location.
 Inexpensivesystem: Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean
reduction in memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses. A
particular software can be installed only once on the server and made available across all connected
computers at once. This saves the expense of buying and installing the same software as many times
for as many users.
 Flexible access: A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files. This
offers flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.
 Instant and multipleaccess: Computer networks are multiply processed .many of users can access
the same information at the same time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be
made with the help of computer networks.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

 Lack of data security andprivacy: Because there would be a huge number of people who would be
using a computer network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s
security would be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you
need to be careful about and aware of.
 Presence of computer viruses andmalwares: If even one computer on a network gets affected by a
virus, there is a possible threat for the other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a
network easily, because of the inter- connectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with
common resources are the perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply.
 Lack of Independence: Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the
client users lack any freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder how a
client user wants to use his owncomputer.
 Lack ofRobustness: As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the
entire system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server that
fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill.
 Need an efficienthandler: For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires
high technical skills and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having basic
skills cannot do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is high, as
allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network configuration and
connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average technician who does not have
advanced knowledge.

Applications of Computer Networks

 Financialservices: Nowadays, almost all the financial services depend on the computer network.
You can access the financial services across the world. For example, a user can transfer money
from one place to another by using the electronic fund transfer feature. You can use networking in
various financial areas such as ATM, foreign exchange and credit historysearch.
Data Communications /3

 Business: Nowadays, most of the works of businesses are done over the computers. To exchange
the data and ideas, you need an effective data and resources sharing features. To do this, you need
to connect the computer with each other through a network. For example, a person of one
department of an organization can share or access the electronic data of other department through
network.
 Emailservices: A computer network provides you the facility to send or receive mails across the
globe in few seconds.
 Mobileapplications: By using the mobile applications, such as cellular or wireless phones, you can
communicate (exchange your views and ideas) with one other.
 Directory services: It provides you the facility to store files on a centralized location to increase the
speed of search operation worldwide.
 Teleconferencing: It contains voice conferencing and video conferencing which are based in
networking. In teleconferencing the participants need not to be presented at the same location.

1.2. COMMUNICATION

A data communications system has five components.

 Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular formsof information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, andvideo.
 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
 Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
 Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial
cable, fiber-optic cable, and radiowaves
 Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks
onlyJapanese.

1.2.1. DATAREPRESENTATION

Information today comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio, and video.
 Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of bits (0s or Is).
Different sets of bit patterns have been designed to represent text symbols. Each set is called a
code, and the process of representing symbols is called coding. Today, the prevalent coding system
4/ Data Communications and Computer Networks

is called Unicode, which uses 32 bits to represent a symbol or character used in any language in
the world.
 Numbers: Numbers are also represented by bit patterns. However, a code such as American
Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is not used to represent numbers; the number
is directly converted to a binary number to simplify mathematical operations.
 Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. In its simplest form, an image is composed of a
matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot. The size of the pixel depends
on the resolution. For example, an image can be divided into 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. In the
second case, there is a better representation of the image (better resolution), but more memory is
needed to store the image. After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit
pattern. The size and the value of the pattern depend on the image. A black pixel can be
represented by 00, a dark gray pixel by 01, a light gray pixel by 10, and a white pixel by 11.
There are several methods to represent color images. One method is called RGB, so called because
each color is made of a combination of three primary colors: red, green, and blue. The intensity of
each color is measured, and a bit pattern is assigned to it. Another method is called YCM, in which
a color is made of a combination of three other primary colors: yellow, cyan, andmagenta.
 Audio: Audio refers to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. Audio is by nature
different from text, numbers, or images. It is continuous, not discrete. Even when we use a
microphone to change voice or music to an electric signal, we create a continuous signal.
 Video: Video refers to the recording or broadcasting of a picture or movie. Video can either be
produced as a continuous entity (e.g., by a TV camera), or it can be a combination of images,
each a discrete entity, arranged to convey the idea of motion. Again we can change video to a
digital or an analog signal.

1.2.2. DATAFLOW(TRANSMISSION MODE)

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex as shown in Figure:
Data Communications /5

 Simplex: In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one
of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see Figure a). Keyboards and
traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce input; the
monitor can only accept output. The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to
send data in onedirection.
 Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa The half-duplex mode
is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.
When cars are traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait. In a half-duplex
transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two devices is
transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems.
The half-duplex mode is used in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions
at the same time; the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction.
 Full-Duplex: In full-duplex both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see Figure c). The
full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time. In
full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link: with signals going in
the other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically
separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the
channel is divided between signals traveling in both directions. One common example of full-duplex
communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time. The full-duplex mode is used when communication
in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of the channel, however, must be divided
between the two directions.

1.3. NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A node
can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by
other nodes on the network.

1.3.1. DISTRIBUTEDPROCESSING

Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple computers. Instead
of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate computers (usually a
personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.

1.3.2. NETWORKCRITERIA

A network must be able to meet a certain number of criteria. The most important of these are
performance, reliability, and security.

Performance:
Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response [Link] time is
the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to another. Response time is the
elapsed time between an inquiry and a response. The performance of a network depends on a number
of factors, including the number of users, the typeof transmission medium, the capabilities of the
6/ Data Communications and Computer Networks

connected hardware, and the efficiency of the software. Performance is often evaluated by two
networking metrics: throughput and delay. We often need more throughput and less delay. However,
these two criteria are often contradictory. If we try to send more data to the network, we may increase
throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic congestion in thenetwork.

Reliability:
In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency of failure, the time
it takes a link to recover from a failure, and the network's robustness in a catastrophe.

Security:
Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data from
damage and development, and implementing policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and
data losses.

1.3.3. TYPES OF CONNECTIONS

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway that
transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link
as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected in
some way to the same link at the same time. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-
point and multipoint.

Point-to-Point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire capacity of the
link is reserved for transmission between those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an
actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or
satellite links, are also possible. When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you
are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control
system.

Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multi drop) connection is one in which more than two specific devices share a
single link. In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatiallyor
temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a time sharedconnection.
Data Communications /7

[Link]. PHYSICALTOPOLOGY

The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and linking
devices (usually called nodes) to one another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus,
andring.

Mesh: In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. n other
words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-modelinks.

Advantages:
 The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multipledevices.
 A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
 There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated line,
only the intended recipient sees it.
 Finally, point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. This facility enables
the network manager to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause
andsolution.

Disadvantages:
 Disadvantage of a mesh are related to the amount of cabling because every device must be
connected to every other device, installation and re connection aredifficult.
 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or floors)
can accommodate.
 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitivelyexpensive.
8/ Data Communications and Computer Networks

For these reasons a mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited fashion, for example, as a
backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid network that can include several other
topologies.

Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star
topology does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one
device wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to
the other connected device .

Advantages:
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each device needs only one link
and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others. This factor also makes it easy to install
and reconfigure.
 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.
 Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active. This factor also lends itself to easy fault identification and fault isolation.

Disadvantages:
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one single
point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub. For
this reason, often more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or
bus).

Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is
multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
Data Communications /9

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable or
punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along
the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it becomes weaker and weaker
as it travels farther and farther. For this reason there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support
and on the distance between those taps.

Advantages:
 Ease of installation.
 A bus uses less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
 In a star, for example, four network devices in the same room require four lengths of cable
reaching all the way to the hub. In a bus, this redundancy is eliminated

Disadvantages:
 Difficult re connection and fault isolation.
 Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. This degradation can be controlled by
limiting the number and spacing of devices connected to a given length of cable.
 It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Adding new devices may therefore require
modification or replacement of the backbone.
 In addition, a fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between devices on the
same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin,
creating noise in both directions.

Example for Bus Topology is Ethernet LANs can use a bus topology, but they are less popular.

Ring Topology
In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices on
either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until it
reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.
10 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Advantages:
 A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked to only its immediate
neighbors (either physically or logically).
 To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections. The only constraints are media
and traffic considerations (maximum ring length and number of devices).
 In addition, fault isolation is simplified. Generally in a ring, a signal is circulating at all times. If one
device does not receive a signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts the
network operator to the problem and its location.

Disadvantages:
 A Unidirectional traffic can be a disadvantage.
 In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled station) can disable the entire network.
This weakness can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off the break.
 Ring topology was prevalent when IBM introduced its local-area network Token Ring.

Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology as shown in Figure

1.3.4. CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS

Local Area Networks:

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single building or
campus of up to a few kilometres in size. They are widely used to connect personal computers and
workstations in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange
information. LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
 Theirsize,
Data Communications / 11

 Their transmission technology,and

 Theirtopology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is bounded and known
in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of designs that would not
otherwise be possible. It also simplifies network management. LANs may use a transmission technology
consisting of a cable to which all the machines are attached, like the telephone company party lines
once used in rural areas. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay
(microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors. Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps
Various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs. Figure1 shows two of them. In a bus (i.e., a linear
cable) network, at any instant at most one machine is the master and is allowed to transmit. All other
machines are required to refrain from sending. An arbitration mechanism is needed to resolve conflicts
when two or more machines want to transmit simultaneously. The arbitration mechanism may be
centralized or distributed. IEEE 802.3, popularly called Ethernet, for example, is a bus-based
broadcast network with decentralized control, usually operating at 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps. Computers
on an Ethernet can transmit whenever they want to; if two or more packets collide, each computer just
waits a random time and tries again later.

Fig.1: Two broadcast networks . (a) Bus. (b) Ring.

A second type of broadcast system is the ring. In a ring, each bit propagates around on its own, not
waiting for the rest of the packet to which it belongs. Typically, each bit circumnavigates the entire ring
in the time it takes to transmit a few bits, often before the complete packet has even been transmitted.
As with all other broadcast systems, some rule is needed for arbitrating simultaneous accesses to the
ring. Various methods, such as having the machines take turns, are in use. IEEE 802.5 (the IBM token
ring), is a ring-based LAN operating at 4 and 16 Mbps. FDDI is another example of a ring network.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is the cable
television network available in many cities. This system grew from earlier community antenna systems
used in areas with poor over-the-air television reception. At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc
systems. In this figure both television signals and Internet are fed into the centralized head end for
subsequent distribution to people's homes. Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent
developments in high-speed wireless Internet access resulted in another MAN, which has been
standardized as IEEE 802.16.
12 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

A MAN is implemented by a standard called DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus) or IEEE 802.16.
DQDB has two unidirectional buses (or cables) to which all the computers are attached.

Fig.2: Metropolitan area network based on cable TV

Wide Area Network (WAN):

A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent. It
contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application) programs. These
machines are called as hosts. The hosts are connected by a communication sub-net, or just sub-net for
short. The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g., people's personal computers), whereas the
communication sub-net is typically owned and operated by a telephone company or Internet service
provider. The job of the sub-net is to carry messages from host to host, just as the telephone system
carries words from speaker to listener.

Separation of the pure communication aspects of the network (the sub-net) from the application
aspects (the hosts), greatly simplifies the complete network design. In most wide area networks, the
sub-net consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements. Transmission
lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper wire, optical fiber, or even radio links.
In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one connecting a pair of
routers. If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they must do this
indirectly, via other routers. When a packet is sent from one router to another via one or more
intermediate routers, the packet is received at each intermediate router in its entirety, stored there
until the required output line is free, and then forwarded. A sub-net organized according to this
principle is called a store-and-forward or packet-switched sub-net. Nearly all wide area networks
(except those using satellites) have store-and-forward sub-nets. When the packets are small and all the
same size, they are often called cells.

The principle of a packet-switched WAN is so important. Generally, when a process on some host has
a message to be sent to a process on some other host, the sending host first cuts the message into
packets, each one bearing its number in the sequence. These packets are then injected into the network
one at a time in quick succession. The packets are transported individually over the network and
deposited at the receiving host, where they are reassembled into the original message and delivered to
the receiving process. A stream of packets resulting from some initial message is illustrated in Fig.
Data Communications / 13

Fig.3.1: A stream of packets from sender to receiver

In this figure, all the packets follow the route ACE, rather than ABDE or ACDE. In some networks all
packets from a given message must follow the same route; in others each packed is routed separately.
Of course, if ACE is the best route, all packets may be sent along it, even if each packet is individually
routed.

Wireless Network
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code was used to implement wireless
networks. Modern digital wireless systems have better performance, but the basic idea is the same.

Wireless Networks can be divided into three main categories:

 System interconnection
 Wireless LANs
 Wireless WANs

System Interconnection
System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-range
radio. Some companies got together to design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to
connect various components such as monitor, keyboard, mouse and printer, to the main unit, without
wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners and other devices to connect to a
computer by merely being brought within range.

In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit is
normally the master, talking to the mouse, keyboard, etc. as slaves.

Wireless LANs
These are the systems in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which it can
communicate with other systems. Wireless LANs are becoming increasingly common in small offices
and homes, where installing Ethernet is considered too much trouble. There is a standard for wireless
LANs called IEEE 802.11, which most systems implement and which is becoming very widespread.

Wireless WANs
The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a low-bandwidth wireless WAN. This
system has already gone through three generations.
 The first generation was analog and for voice only.
14 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

 The second generation was digital and for voice only.

 The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.

Inter Network
Inter Network or Internet is a combination of two or more networks. Inter network can be formed by
joining two or more individual networks by means of various devices such as routers, gateways and
bridges.

1.4. PROTOCOLS AND STANDARDS

Protocols:
In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is
Data Communications / 15

anything capable of sending or receiving information. However, two entities cannot simply send bit
streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to occur, the entities must
agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. A protocol defines
what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key elements of a
protocol are syntax, semantics, andtiming.
 Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which
they are presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the
address of the sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the
stream to be the messageitself.
 Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular
pattern to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For
example, does an address identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?
 Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they
can be sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data
at only 1 Mbps, the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will belost.

Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for equipment
manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of data and
telecommunications technology and processes. Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors,
government agencies, and other service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in
today's marketplace and in international communications.

Data communication standards fall into two categories: de facto (meaning "by fact" or "by
convention") and de jure (meaning "by law" or "by regulation").

1.5. THE OSI REFERENCEMODEL

This model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as a
first step toward international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers (Day and
Zimmermann, 1983). It was revised in 1995(Day, 1995). The model is called the ISO-OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems—that is,
systems that are open for communication with other systems..

The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can be
briefly summarized asfollows:
 A layer should be created where a different abstraction is needed.
 Each layer should perform a well-definedfunction.
 The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardizedprotocols.
 The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across theinterfaces.
 The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown together
in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
becomeunwieldy.
16 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Fig.4: The OSI reference model

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1) :

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. It is responsible for the actual
physical connection between the devices. The physical layer contains information in the form of bits. It
is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. When receiving data, this layer
will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the Data Link layer, which
will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are :

 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes are
arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.
** Network Layer, Data Link Layer and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.
Data Communications / 17

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2) :

The data link layer is responsible for the node to node delivery of the message. The main function of
this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over the physical layer.
When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit it to the Host using its
MAC address.

Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers :

 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)

Packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame size of
NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the
header.

The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol) request onto
the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with its MAC address.

The functions of the data Link layer are :

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a
set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit
patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC address)
of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus ,
flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving acknowledgement.
 Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC sub-
layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given
time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
** Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host
machines.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3) :

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by network
layer.

The functions of the Network layer are :

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination.
18 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

This function of network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on inter network uniquely, network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by
network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4) :

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. The data
in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the End to End delivery of the
complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgement of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if error is found.
 At sender’s side:
Transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers, performs Segmentation and also
implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the Network Layer.
Note: The sender need to know the port number associated with the receiver’s application.

Generally this destination port number is configured, either by default or manually. For example, when
a web application makes a request to a web server, it typically uses port number 80, because this is the
default port assigned to web applications. Many applications have default port assigned.
 At receiver’s side:
Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and forwards the Data which it has received to
the respective application. It also performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.

The functions of the transport layer are :

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer , breaks the
message into smaller units . Each of the segment produced has a header associated with it. The
transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport layer header
includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by specifying this
address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.

The services provided by transport layer :

 Connection Oriented Service: It is a three phase process which include:
o Connection Establishment
o Data Transfer
o Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source
after a packet or group of packet is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.
 Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for much
Data Communications / 19

faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is more reliable than
connection less Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates with
the Application Layer by making system calls.
Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI model.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5) :

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions, authentication and
also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are :
 Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes to
establish, use and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronization point help to identify the error so that
the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and data
loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller : The session layer determines which device will communicate first and the
amount of data that will be sent.
**All the above 3 layers are integrated as a single layer in TCP/IP model as “Application Layer”.
**Implementation of above 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are also known
as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6) :

Presentation layer is also called the Translation [Link] data from the application layer is extracted
here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are :
 Translation : For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Encryption/ Decryption : Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A key
value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7) :

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to be
transferred over the network. This layer also serves as window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.

Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.

**Application Layer is also called as Desktop Layer.

The functions of the Application layer are :

20 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

 Network Virtual Terminal

 FTAM-File transfer access and management
 Mail Services
 Directory Services

Example Networks
Cells
The most basic data transfer units are called cells in the ATM technology. While on the data link layer
the data transfer units are known as the frames, the data transfer unit for the ATM concepts was
named cells. A cell size is 53 bytes, out of which 5 bytes will be header size and rest of the 48 bytes
will be the payload. That means around 10% of the packet size is the header size.

Asynchronous Data Transfer

ATM uses Asynchronous data transfer while utilizing statistical multiplexing, unlike circuit-switched
network where the bandwidth is wasted when there is no data transfer taking place.

Connection Type
However, it uses a connection-oriented network for data transfer mostly for the purpose of Quality of
Services. ATM operates by setting up a connection with the destination using the first cell and the rest
of the cells follow the first cell for the data delivery. That means, the order of the packets is guaranteed
but not the delivery of the packets.

This connection is called virtual circuit. This means that from the source to the destination, a path has
to be found first before the data transfer is initiated. Along the path, all the ATM switches (devices)
allocate some resources for the connection based on the class of services which has been chosen by the
user.

The transmission medium could be a CAT6 cable, a fiber cable, a WAN and even packaged inside
payload of other carrier systems. With such flexibility of data transfer, ATM was supposed to give a
quality service in the most of the cases.

Quality of Service and Service categories in ATM:

Quality of Service in ATM technology is handled in different ways based on a certain number of
criteria. Based upon it, different service categories have been introduced such as Available Bit rate,
Unspecified Bit Rate, Constant Bit Rate, Variable Bit Rate, etc.

ATM Layers
Just like the OSI model, ATM protocol stack has also been divided into three layers with different
assigned functionalities:
 ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
o Convergence Sublayer (CS) and,
o Segmentation & Reassembly Sublayer (SAR)
 ATM Layer and,
 Physical Layer
o Transmission Convergence Sublayer (TS) and,
o Physical Medium Sublayer
Data Communications / 21

 Broadband ISDN (B-ISDN) is a set of communication protocols which are designed to transport a
wide range of services simultaneously.
 The purpose of B-ISDN is to simplify and reduce the cost of communication between the
interconnecting LAN's, multimedia conferencing, interactive games, image transmission etc.
 B-ISDN is the low-level MAC(Media Access control) protocol for transferring the actual data.

The ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) was designed with an aim to provide:
 High speed data rate.
 Low error rate between two or more switching centers.
 Digital voice and videos.
 Low operating cost.

Features of ATM
 Flexibility and versatility of voice, videos and images can be transmitted simultaneously over a
single or integrated corporate network.
 Higher transmission capability.
 It provides support for virtual networks.

ATM Bit Rates

ATM supports four different types of bit rate:

1. Constant bit rate (CBR)

CBR traffic is derived from the source, where the information is transmitted at a constant rate.
Example: Telephonic speech without silencer.

2. Variable Bit Rate (VBR)

Variable traffic is derived from a variable source. Example: Compressed voice or video with silence
suppression.

3. Available Bit Rate (VBR)

When a carrier has allocated the necessary bandwidth on the links to carry CBR traffic and minimum
VBR is guaranteed. The ABR is the mechanism to share the remaining bandwidth fairly between the
links.

4. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)

In UBR, there is no guarantee about the bandwidth traffic delay and loss. The control of flow in UBR
can be provided from the end device.
The protocol which performs the operation of braking frames into the cells is known as ATM

Adaptation Layer (AAL):

 Cells carrying speech and video must be received in the order they were sent. This is known as
preserving data integrity and it is a function of ATM layer.
 Any link which preserves the order of data entering and leaving is known as channel.
 In ATM protocols, an end-to end connection is established before traffic and starts to flow. Then,
the traffic follows the same path through the network to achieve a true quality of service.
22 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

 The connection-less services are implemented with the help of AAL.

Architecture of ATM

1. Physical layer
 Physical layer is a point-to-point transfer mechanism at the top of hardware (it may be wire also).
 Physical layer adds its own information to each cell which is transmitted for link management.

Physical layer performs four functions:

 Physical layer converts bits into cells.
 It transmits and receives the bits on physical medium.
 Tracks the cell boundaries.
 Packaging of cell into frames.
ATM layer is common to all services which can have the packet transfer capabilities.

2. ATM layer
 ATM layer provides the routing information to the data cells.
 ATM interfaces with the AAL and the Physical layer.
 Functions of ATM layer are under the network management, signaling and OAM protocol.

3. ATM Adaptation Layer

 AAL provides the flexibility of a single communication process to carry the multiple types of traffic
such as data, voice, video and multimedia.
 AAL is divided into two major parts.
 Upper part of the AAL is called as the convergence sublayer. Its task is to provide the interface to
the application. The lower part of the AAL is called as the segmentation and reassembly (SAR)
sublayer. It can add headers and trailers to the data units given to it by the convergence sublayer to
form cell payloads.

Frame Relay
Frame relay has evolved from X.25 packet switching and objective is to reduce network
delays, protocol overheads and equipment cost. Error correction is done on an end-to-end basis rather
than a link -to-link basis as in X.25 switching. Frame relay can support multiple users over the same
line and can establish a permanent virtual circuit or a switched virtual circuit.
Data Communications / 23

Characteristics of Frame Relay

 Frame Relay service is a service that supports the transport of data
 Frame relay is a connection less service, meaning that each data packet passing through the
network contains -address information
 Frame relay is a service that is provided with a variety of speeds from 56 Kbs up to 25 Mbs.
 Even though the most used speeds for the service are currently 56 Kbs and 1.544 Mbs
 Frames are variable in length and goes up to 4,096 bytes
 Frame Relay is considered to be a Broadband ISDN service
 One of the unique facets of frame relay service is that the service supports variable size data
packets.

Some important features of frame relay are :

 Frame relay operates at a high speed (1.544 Mbps to 44.376 Mbps).
 Frame relay operates only in the physical and data link layers. So it can be easily used in Internet.
 It allows the bursty data.
 It has a large frame size of 9000 bytes. So it can accommodate all local area network frame sizes.
 Frame relay can only detect errors (at the data link layer). But there is no flow control or error
control.
 The damaged frame is simply dropped. There is no re-transmission. This is to increase the speed.
So frame relay needs a reliable medium and protocols having flow and error control.

Frame Format
The frame format used in frame relay.
 The DLCI length is 10 bits
 There are two EA locations. The value of the first one is fixed at 0 and the second at 1 is set in the
DE (Discard Eligibility) for the part that can be discarded first when congestion occurs
 The data size may vary up to 4096 bytes.

Frame relay layers

 Frame relay has only two layers i.e. physical layer and data link layer.

Physical layer
 Frame relay supports ANSI standards.
 No specific protocol is defined for the physical layer. The user can use any protocol which is
24 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

recognized by ANSI.

Data link layer

 A simplified version of HDLC is employed by the frame relay at the data link layer.
 A simpler version is used because flow control and error correction is not needed in frame relay.

The need for frame relay:

The frame relay is being used for a number of reasons. Some of the important reasons are as follows:
 Higher data rates.
 It allows transfer of bursty data.
 It has lower overheads.

Frame relay architecture:

Frame relay can provide two types of virtual circuits.
 Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC).
 Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC).

Advantages of frame relay:

Some of the advantages of frame relay are:
 Streamlined communication process.
 The number of functions of a protocol at the user-network interface is reduced.
 Lower delay.
 Higher throughput.
 Frame relay can be used at access speeds upto 2 Mbps.
 Frame Relay is cost- effective, partly due to the fact that the network buffering requirements are
carefully optimized.
 Compared to X.25, with its store and forward mechanism and full error correction, network
buffering is minimal.
 Frame Relay is also much faster than X.25: the frames are switched to their destination with only a
few byte times delay, as opposed to several hundred milliseconds delay on X.25.

Disadvantages of frame relay:

 Frames are delivered unreliably.
 Packets may not be delivered in the same sequence as that at the sending end.
Data Communications / 25

 Packets having errors are simply discarded.

 Frame relay does not provide flow control.
 It does not provide the acknowledgement of received packets.
 Frame discarded in case of network congestion. If congestion occurs in the network, frame (data) is
discarded within the network without re-transmission of this frame. The sender must perform re-
transmission control at his own responsibility.

Congestion control in frame relay networks:

The frame relay network implements a simple congestion control mechanism in which involves
congestion notification.

The two congestion notification mechanisms are as follows:

 FECN : Forward Explicit Congestion Notification.
 BECN : Backward Explicit Congestion Notification.
 Both these are controlled by a single bit contained in the frame header of frame relay.
 The frame header of frame relay also contains a Discard Eligibility (DE) bit. It is useful in
identifying the less important traffic which can be dropped in the event of congestion.
 The FECN bit is a part of the address field of the frame header.
 If the network is congested, the FECN bit is set to 1. When such frames reach the destination, the
FECN = 1 indicates the presence of congestion. The flow control can then be initiated or the
indication may be ignored.
 As shown in Fig. the FECN bit travels to the destination i.e. in the direction of transmission.
 The BECN bit also is a part of the address field of the frame header.
 The value of BECN bit is set to 1 in the frames that traveling in the opposite direction (to the
sender).
 The BECN = 1 indicates congestion and the flow control is exercised to control the congestion.

Discard Eligibility (DE):

 If "DE" bit of a frame is set to 1 then it shows that, the particular frame has lower importance than
the other frames.
 In the event of congestion, the frames with DE = 1 are discarded first to reduce the possibility of
critical data getting affected by the congestion.
26 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Frame Relay and the OSI Reference Model

Frame relay constitutes of the OSI second layer (data link layer). Above that layer the protocol may
be determined as desired by the user. Therefore, the IP protocol (the third-layer protocol) which is
commonly used for LAN can be used without any modification.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

ISDN maps to the three lower layers of the OSI model – Network, Data Link, and Physical. However,
different protocols exist at the Data Link and Network layers for B and D channels, as illustrated in the
figure below.
 Physical Layer. The ISDN Physical layer is concerned with the actual sending and receiving of bits
over variety of interfaces. For example, the I.430 standard is responsible for providing
communication over S/T reference points, while the ANSI T1.601 standard defines
communication over U interfaces in North America.
 Data Link Layer. ISDN D channels use the Link Access Procedure for D Channels (LAPD –
Q.921) to frame signaling and control data at Layer 2. On the B channel, data can be framed in a
variety of ways, including via PPP and HDLC.
 Network Layer. ISDN D channels handle call setup, termination, and maintenance at the OSI
Network layer using the Q.931 protocol, which implements common signaling standards. On B
channels, ISDN uses common Network layer protocols like IP, IPX, AppleTalk, and so forth.

MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams of transmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link. Multiplexing divides the high capacity medium into low
capacity logical medium which is then shared by different streams.

Communication is possible over the air (radio frequency), using a physical media (cable), and light
(optical fiber). All mediums are capable of multiplexing.

When multiple senders try to send over a single medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel and allocates one to each. On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexer
receives data from a single medium, identifies each, and sends to different receivers.

Frequency Division Multiplexing

When the carrier is frequency, FDM is used. FDM is an analog technology. FDM divides the spectrum
or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each channel. Each user can use the
channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it. All channels are divided in such a way
Data Communications / 27

that they do not overlap with each other. Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a
frequency which is not used by either channel.

Time Division Multiplexing

TDM is applied primarily on digital signals but can be applied on analog signals as well. In TDM the
shared channel is divided among its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data within the
provided time slot only. Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to time slot i.e. frame of an
optimal size which can be transmitted in given time slot.

TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and De-multiplexer are timely
synchronized and both switch to next channel simultaneously.

When channel A transmits its frame at one end,the De-multiplexer provides media to channel A on the
other [Link] soon as the channel A’s time slot expires, this side switches to channel B. On the other
end, the De-multiplexer works in a synchronized manner and provides media to channel B. Signals
from different channels travel the path in interleaved manner.

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Light has different wavelength (colors). In fiber optic mode, multiple optical carrier signals are
multiplexed into an optical fiber by using different wavelengths. This is an analog multiplexing
technique and is done conceptually in the same manner as FDM but uses light as signals.
28 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Further, on each wavelength time division multiplexing can be incorporated to accommodate more
data signals.

Code Division Multiplexing

Multiple data signals can be transmitted over a single frequency by using Code Division Multiplexing.
FDM divides the frequency in smaller channels but CDM allows its users to full bandwidth and transmit
signals all the time using a unique code. CDM uses orthogonal codes to spread signals.

Each station is assigned with a unique code, called chip. Signals travel with these codes independently,
inside the whole [Link] receiver knows in advance the chip code signal it has to receive.

Transmission Media
Data is represented by computers and other telecommunication devices using signals. Signals are
transmitted in the form of electromagnetic energy from one device to another. Electromagnetic signals
travel through vacuum, air or other transmission mediums to move from one point to another(from
sender to receiver).

Transmission medium is the means through which we send our data from one place to another.
Data Communications / 29

Factors to be considered while selecting a Transmission Medium

 Transmission Rate
 Cost and Ease of Installation
 Resistance to Environmental Conditions
 Distances

Bounded or Guided Transmission Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include Twisted-
Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, and Fibre-Optic Cable.

A signal travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current. Optical fibre is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the
form of light.

Twisted Pair Cable

This cable is the most commonly used and is cheaper than others. It is lightweight, cheap, can be
installed easily, and they support many different types of network. Some important points :
 Its frequency range is 0 to 3.5 kHz.
 Typical attenuation is 0.2 dB/Km @ 1kHz.
 Typical delay is 50 碌s/km.
 Repeater spacing is 2km.

A twisted pair consists of two conductors(normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation,
twisted together. One of these wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used only
as ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two.

In addition to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference(noise) and crosstalk may
affect both wires and create unwanted signals. If the two wires are parallel, the effect of these
unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they are at different locations relative to the
noise or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at the receiver.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

 Un shielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Un shielded Twisted Pair Cable

It is the most common type of telecommunication when compared with Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
which consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own colour plastic insulator.
Identification is the reason behind coloured plastic insulation.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair
cable use RJ-45 connector.
30 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Advantages of Un shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Installation is easy
 Flexible
 Cheap
 It has high speed capacity,
 100 meter limit
 Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet.

It consists of two insulating copper wires (1mm thick). The wires are twisted together in a helical form
to reduce electrical interference from similar pair.

Disadvantages of Un shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable
 Provides less protection from interference.

Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

This cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of insulated conductors.
Electromagnetic noise penetration is prevented by metal casing. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk
(explained in KEY TERMS Chapter).

It has same attenuation as un shielded twisted pair. It is faster the un shielded and coaxial cable. It is
more expensive than coaxial and un shielded twisted pair.
Data Communications / 31

Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Easy to install
 Performance is adequate
 Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission
 Increases the signaling rate
 Higher capacity than un-shielded twisted pair
 Eliminates crosstalk

Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 Difficult to manufacture
 Heavy

Applications of Shielded Twisted Pair Cable

 In telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone
companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of un-
shielded twisted-pair cables.
 Local Area Network, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, also use twisted-pair cables.

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial is called by this name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
Copper is used in this as centre conductor which can be a solid wire or a standard one. It is surrounded
by PVC installation, a sheath which is encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, barid or both.

Outer metallic wrapping is used as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which completes
the circuit. The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath. The outermost part is the
plastic cover which protects the whole cable.

Here the most common coaxial standards.

 50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
 50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
 75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
 93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.
32 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government(RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes a
unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the thickness and
the type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Each cable defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function, as shown in the table below:

Coaxial Cable Connectors

To connect coaxial cable to devices, we need coaxial connectors. The most common type of connector
used today is the Bayonet Neil-Concelman (BNC) connector. The below figure shows 3 popular types
of these connectors: the BNC Connector, the BNC T connector and the BNC terminator.

The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable to the device, such as a TV set. The BNC
T connector is used in Ethernet networks to branch out to a connection to a computer or other device.
The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent the reflection of the signal.

There are two types of Coaxial cables:

1. Base Band
This is a 50 ohm (邃ｦ) coaxial cable which is used for digital transmission. It is mostly used for LAN's.
Base band transmits a single signal at a time with very high speed. The major drawback is that it needs
amplification after every 1000 feet.

2. Broad Band
This uses analog transmission on standard cable television cabling. It transmits several simultaneous
signal using different frequencies. It covers large area when compared with Base band Coaxial Cable.

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Bandwidth is high
 Used in long distance telephone lines.
 Transmits digital signals at a very high rate of 10Mbps.
 Much higher noise immunity
Data Communications / 33

 Data transmission without distortion.

 The can span to longer distance at higher speeds as they have better shielding when compared to
twisted pair cable

Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable

 Single cable failure can fail the entire network.
 Difficult to install and expensive when compared with twisted pair.
 If the shield is imperfect, it can lead to grounded loop.

Applications of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks, where a single coaxial network could
carry 10,000 voice signals.
 Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables. In the traditional cable TV network, the entire network
used coaxial cable. Cable TV uses RG-59 coaxial cable.
 In traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of it high bandwidth, and consequence high data rate,
coaxial cable was chosen for digital transmission in early Ethernet LANs. The 10Base-2, or Thin
Ethernet, uses RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data at 10Mbps with a range
of 185 m.

Fiber Optics
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light only
moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must be made
between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for one direction
of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to other device. These
pulses translated into “1’s” and “0’s” at the other end.

In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this glass to
the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING. No light
escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding.

Internal view of an Optical fibre

Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 Gbps (Gigabytes per Second)

Characteristics of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Expensive
 Very hard to install
 Capable of extremely high speed
 Extremely low attenuation
 No EMI interference
34 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:

 Fast
 Low attenuation
 No EMI interference

Disadvantages Fiber Optics:

 Very costly
 Hard to install

Propagation Modes of Fiber Optic Cable

Multi-mode Propagation Mode

Multi-mode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths.
Data Communications / 35

In multi-mode step-index fibre, the density of the core remains constant from the centre to the edges.
A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of
the core and the cladding.

The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion of the
signal as it passes through the fibre.

In multi-mode graded-index fibre, this distortion gets decreases through the cable. The word index
here refers to the index of refraction. This index of refraction is related to the density. A graded-index
fibre, therefore, is one with varying densities. Density is highest at the centre of the core and decreases
gradually to its lowest at the edge.

Un-bounded or Un-guided Transmission Media

Unguided medium transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through
free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

The below figure shows the part of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from 3 kHz to 900 THz,
used for wireless communication.

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups:

 Radio waves
 Micro waves
 Infrared waves

Radio Waves
Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio
waves.

Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated in all
directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A sending
antenna send waves that can be received by any receiving antenna. The omnidirectional property has
disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are susceptible to interference by
another antenna that may send signal suing the same frequency or band.

Radio waves, particularly with those of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls. This
characteristic can be both an advantage and a disadvantage. It is an advantage because, an AM radio
can receive signals inside a building. It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to
just inside or outside a building.
36 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Applications of Radio Waves

 The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multi-casting in which
there is one sender but many receivers.
 AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are examples of multi-
casting.

Micro Waves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called micro waves. Micro
waves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves, they can be narrowly focused. This
means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an
obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.

The following describes some characteristics of microwaves propagation:

 Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in
direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall.
 Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage if
receivers are inside the buildings.
 The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore, wider sub-bands can be
assigned and a high date rate is possible.
 Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.

Applications of Micro Waves

Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when uni cast(one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones,
satellite networks and wireless LANs.

There are 2 types of Microwave Transmission :

 Terrestrial Microwave
 Satellite Microwave

Advantages of Microwave Transmission

 Used for long distance telephone communication
 Carries 1000's of voice channels at the same time

Disadvantages of Microwave Transmission

 It is very costly

Satellite Microwave
This is a microwave relay station which is placed in outer space. The satellites are launched either by
rockets or space shuttles carry them.

These are positioned 36000 Km above the equator with an orbit speed that exactly matches the
rotation speed of the earth. As the satellite is positioned in a Geo-synchronous orbit, it is stationery
relative to earth and always stays over the same point on the ground. This is usually done to allow
ground stations to aim antenna at a fixed point in the sky.
Data Communications / 37

Features of Satellite Microwave

 Bandwidth capacity depends on the frequency used.
 Satellite microwave deployment for orbiting satellite is difficult.

Advantages of Satellite Microwave

 Transmitting station can receive back its own transmission and check whether the satellite has
transmitted information correctly.
 A single microwave relay station which is visible from any point.

Disadvantages of Satellite Microwave

 Satellite manufacturing cost is very high
 Cost of launching satellite is very expensive
 Transmission highly depends on whether conditions, it can go down in bad weather

Infrared Waves
Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz, can be used for short-range
communication. Infrared waves, having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous
characteristic prevents interference between one system and another, a short-range communication
system in on room cannot be affected by another system in the next room.

When we use infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the remote by our
neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes infrared signals useless for long-range
communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications of Infrared Waves

 The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data transmission. Such a wide
bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data rate.
 The Infrared Data Association(IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared waves, has
established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such as keyboards,
mouse, PCs and printers.
 Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of-sight
propagation.
38 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

1.6. SWITCHING

Switching is process to forward packets coming in from one port to a port leading towards the
destination. When data comes on a port it is called ingress, and when data leaves a port or goes out it
is called egress. A communication system may include number of switches and nodes. At broad level,
switching can be divided into two major categories:
 Connection less: The data is forwarded on behalf of forwarding tables. No previous handshaking is
required and acknowledgement are optional.
 Connection Oriented: Before switching data to be forwarded to destination, there is a need to Pre-
establish circuit along the path between both endpoints. Data is then forwarded on that circuit.
After the transfer is completed, circuits can be kept for future use or can be turned down
immediately.

Circuit Switching
When two nodes communicate with each other over a dedicated communication path, it is called
circuit [Link] 'is a need of Pre-specified route from which data will travels and no other data
is [Link] circuit switching, to transfer the data, circuit must be established so that the data
transfer can take place.

Circuits can be permanent or temporary. Applications which use circuit switching may have to go
through three phases:
 Establish a circuit
 Transfer the data
 Disconnect the circuit

Circuit switching was designed for voice applications. Telephone is the best suitable example of circuit
switching. Before a user can make a call, a virtual path between caller and callee is established over the
network.
Data Communications / 39

Message Switching
This technique was somewhere in middle of circuit switching and packet switching. In message
switching, the whole message is treated as a data unit and is switching / transferred in its entirety.

A switch working on message switching, first receives the whole message and buffers it until there are
resources available to transfer it to the next hop. If the next hop is not having enough resource to
accommodate large size message, the message is stored and switch waits.

This technique was considered substitute to circuit switching. As in circuit switching the whole path is
blocked for two entities only. Message switching is replaced by packet switching. Message switching has
the following drawbacks:
 Every switch in transit path needs enough storage to accommodate entire message.
 Because of store-and-forward technique and waits included until resources are available, message
switching is very slow.
 Message switching was not a solution for streaming media and real-time applications.

Packet Switching
Packet switching is a method for sending data whereby the data is divided in packets. Each packet is
given a header containing information of the destination. Each packet is forwarded through the
network to the destination using this information. At the destination the data has to be reassembled
from the received packages.

There are two common packet switching methods in use:

 Datagram Packet Switching:
Each packet is forwarded independently based on the destination address. Routing decisions are
made dynamically, so each packet may follow a different route and thus the packages may arrive
out of order.
 Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:
A route is set up prior to packets being sent. The packets will all follow this route. This makes the
routing through the network very easy and the packages will be received in the correct order.
40 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

Packet-switched networks were originally designed to overcome the inherent weakness of sending data
over the analogue circuit switched network. Circuit switching is not very efficient for small messages
and the analogue circuits make the data subject to noise and errors.

The biggest packet switched network is the internet. The internet uses the datagram packet switching
method.X.25 is based on virtual packet switching.

Datagram packet switching (Datagram Networks)

Datagram packet-switching is a packet switching technology by which each packet, now called a
datagram, is treated as a separate entity. Each packet is routed independently through the network.
Therefore packets contain a header with the full information about the destination. The intermediate
nodes examine the header of a packet and select an appropriate link to another node which is nearer to
the destination. In this system, the packets do not follow a Pre-established route, and the intermediate
nodes do not require prior knowledge of the routes that will be used.

The individual packets which form a data stream may follow different paths between the source and
the destination. As a result, the packets may arrive at the destination out of order. When this occurs,
the packets will have to be reassembled to form the original message.

Because each packet is switched independently, there is no need for connection setup and no need to
dedicate bandwidth in the form of a circuit.

Datagram packet switches use a variety of techniques to forward traffic; they are differentiated by how
long it takes the packet to pass through the switch and their ability to filter out corrupted packets.

There are three primary types of datagram packet switches:

 Store and forward: buffers data until the entire packet is received and checked for errors. This
prevents corrupted packets from propagating throughout the network but increases switching
delay.
 Fragment free: filters out most error packets but doesn't necessarily prevent the propagation of
errors throughout the network. It offers faster switching speeds and lower delay than store-and-
forward mode.
 Cut through:does not filter errors; it switches packets at the highest throughput, offering the least
forwarding delay.
Data Communications / 41

A datagram network is a best effort network. Delivery is not guaranteed. Reliable delivery must be
provided by the end systems (i.e. user's computers) using additional protocols.

The most common datagram network is the Internet, which uses the IP network protocol. Applications
which do not require more than a best effort service can be supported by direct use of packets in a
datagram network, using the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) transport protocol. Applications like
voice and video communications and notifying messages to alert a user that she/he has received new
email are using UDP. Applications like e-mail, web browsing and file upload and download need
reliable communications, such as guaranteed delivery, error control and sequence control. This
reliability ensures that all the data is received in the correct order without errors. It is provided by a
protocol such as the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or the File Transfer Protocol (FTP).

Virtual circuit switching

Virtual circuit switching is a packet switching methodology whereby a path is established between the
source and the final destination through which all the packets will be routed during a call. This path is
called a virtual circuit because to the user, the connection appears to be a dedicated physical circuit.
However, other communications may also be sharing the parts of the same path.

Before the data transfer begins, the source and destination identify a suitable path for the virtual
circuit. All intermediate nodes between the two points put an entry of the routing in their routing table
for the call. Additional parameters, such as the maximum packet size, are also exchanged between the
source and the destination during call setup. The virtual circuit is cleared after the data transfer is
completed.

Virtual circuit packet switching is connection orientated. This is in contrast to datagram switching,
which is a connection less packet switching methodology. Advantages of virtual circuit switching are:
 Packets are delivered in order, since they all take the same route;
 The overhead in the packets is smaller, since there is no need for each packet to contain the full
address;
 The connection is more reliable, network resources are allocated at call setup so that even during
times of congestion, provided that a call has been setup, the subsequent packets should get
through;
42 / Data Communications and Computer Networks

 Billing is easier, since billing records need only be generated per call and not per packet.

Disadvantages of a virtual circuit switched network are:

 The switching equipment needs to be more powerful, since each switch needs to store details of all
the calls that are passing through it and to allocate capacity for any traffic that each call could
generate;
 Resilience to the loss of a trunk is more difficult, since if there is a failure all the calls must be
dynamically reestablished over a different route.
Examples of virtual circuit switching are X.25 and Frame Relay.

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