1 INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY & GOVERNMENT

Sources of information on pre-history

1. Oral traditions.
2. Anthropology.
3. Artifacts / Fossils / Archaeology / Palaeontology.
4. Language of the people.
5. Genetics.
Types of fossils found in archaeological sites.
1. Baskets.
2. Carbonized seeds.
3. Garments (clothes)
4. Charcoal
5. Bones
6. Remains of animals
7. Remains of plants they lived on.
History means the study of man’s past important events.
Branches of History-
Economic, which deals with means of livelihood of man like hunting, growing of crops and
trading.
-Social, which deals with traditions, values and cultural practices of man like
religion, and rites of passage.
-Political, which deals with control system in the society like system of government
and maintenance of law and order.
Government: Means a group of people within a state / Society given authority to exercise power
over that state / Society.
Characteristics of Government.
1. Every government has rules.
2. Legitimacy from the subjects.
3. Sovereignty.
4. Jurisdiction.
5. Leadership.
6. Law enforcement.
Arms / Branches of government-Executive, Judiciary & legislative / parliament / national
assembly.
TYPES / FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
1. Democratic
This is based on the will of the people. Elections are free and fair.
2. Aristocratic
A group of people from the highest social class rule over the society. King or queen is the head
of government.
3. Monarchical- The ruler is the queen or king.
a) Absolute- This is where there is unrestricted power of the head of state.
b) Constitutional- Parliament is supreme but the monarch (king / Queen) is retained.
4. Dictatorial
The ruler has total power over his subjects. He makes the law and exercises it.
Importance of studying History
1. The study of History enables the learner to know the origin of mankind, and his
 progress and development.
2. It enables the learner to appreciate the achievements and learn from the failures of mankind.
3. It enables the learner to understand how human beings depend and relate to each other.
4. It also enables us to understand our culture and also the other people’s.
5. It inspires patriotism and nationalism.
6. It enables the learner to know the political, Social & economic organization /
development of our societies.
7. It enables us to increase knowledge / Gain more knowledge.
8. It gives time & space to past / historical events
9. It enhances the utilization of historical records of events such as famine, and tries to
avoid repeat of the same.
10. It enhances the development of our critical thinking / mind.
11. It provide intellectual fulfillment to the learner.
12. It influences career choices.
How study of history inspires patriotism
1. It enables the learner to be a responsible citizen.
2. It helps one to develop positive values.
3. It enables the learners to acquire a positive attitude towards their country.
4. It enables one to become loyal to his / her country.
Importance of studying government.
1. It helps us to understand how laws are made and enforced.
2. It enables us to learn how development programmes are made and implemented.
3. It enables us to learn how government raises and spends revenue.
4. It enables us to learn the functions of the various organs of government
e.g. Legislature, Judiciary & executive
5. It makes us appreciate and understand the need for a government.
6. It helps us to appreciate the constitution & the process of making & reviewing laws.
7. We are able to know our roles as citizens and the roles of our leaders.
8. It helps us understand our rights, responsibilities and limitation within which we need to
operate.
9. It influences career choices.
SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON HISTORY & GOVERNMENT
These are Oral traditions, Anthropology, Archaeology / Palaeontology, Genetics, Resource person,
Linguistics, Electronics, Written.
They are however grouped / classified in three main sources: unwritten, written & electronics
Unwritten sources
These are the sources with no written records or documentation.
1. Oral traditions
This is the passing over historical information by word of mouth from one generation to another.
It is very vital among the illiterate. This includes Stories / folktales /myths
/ Legends, proverbs, songs, poems, riddles, tongue twisters, etc.
Limitations/disadvantages/demerits
1. Information may be exaggerated / distorted.
2. Some facts may be forgotten, hence omitted as time is dynamic and changes may occur.
3. Some information may be deliberately concealed.
4. Some information may not give dates and chronology of events.
5. It is expensive.
6. It is time consuming.
7. It may emphasize on dominant groups only / May be biased on a few groups of people.
8. It may be false.
9. The information depends on questionnaire.
Merits / advantages
1. It is used in the absence of the written.
2. It complements other sources.
3. It is captivating especially if it is narrated by a participant.
4. It is a form of entertainment.
5. Even the illiterate can benefit.
2. Linguistics
This is the scientific study of languages. Languages change with time. People who speak a
common language may be assumed to have a common origin in the past.
Advantages / Merits
1. Facts can be obtained about movement of people and their relations.
2. It helps us to understand combinations better.
3. It is a medium of communication.
4. It helps in the dating of the migration of people.
5. It enables the researcher to gather information from various sources.
6. It can help historians to discover links between different people which were not known
before.
Disadvantages / Demerits / Limitations
1. Learning a language takes long.
2. Borrowing of words from one language to another has interfered / corrupted the parent
language.
3. Inaccurate information may be passed and hence difficult to understand.
4. There is a possibility of omitting some words when translating.
5. Some words may be difficult to understand.
6. Some languages have become old and irrelevant / archaic, hence difficult to translate.
7. Different languages may have similar words for different meanings.
3. Anthropology
This is the study of human beings, their origin, physical attribute, social activities and institutions e.g.
music, religious practices etc.
It gives a deeper understanding of a people’s culture.
Limitation / disadvantages / demerits
1. It is expensive to move and live in a foreign region / area.
2. It is time consuming as it takes time to learn from strangers.
3. It is difficult for the researcher to adapt to the new environment of the people in question.
4. The researcher may miss important details since the people under study may behave differently
as they are observed in their own culture.
5. It is not reliable on its own; it has to be complimented by other sources.
Advantages / merits
1. By living among the people, the research may be able to understand, discover and explain the
structures of society & their culture.
2. It helps history to determine the cultural past of the people.
3. It gives a deeper understanding of a particular aspect of a people’s culture.
4. Genetics / Botany / Zoology / Biology
This involves the study of hereditary & variations of inherited characteristics.
Limitations/ disadvantages/demerits
 1. It is time consuming
2. It is not accurate especially in dates.
3. It may not be reliable as people look alike.

Merits / Advantages
1. It is easily available
2. There are no skills needed
5. Archaeology & Palaeontology
This involves the study of man’s past through scientific analysis of material remains of his culture
e.g. pottery, buildings, sculpture etc.
All these are referred to as artifacts / fossils. Fossils are remnants of man while artifacts are
remnants of man’s tools.
Some of the early archaeologists in E. Africa include Dr Louis Leaky, Mary Leaky, Richard
Leaky, Jonathan Leaky, Meave Richard Leaky, Dr
M. Posnansky, Dr H. N. N. Chittick, Dr D. W. Philipson
Advantages / merits (Archaeology)
1. It gives detailed information of varied nature.
2. It gives a sense of time as artifacts can be dated.
3. It complements others sources, this ensures authenticity of the information.
4. It provides information on culture of early people.
5. It gives a picture on human activities in the past.
Limitation / disadvantages / demerits
It is expensive to organize visits to museums and archaeological sites for information.
1. It is difficult to locate sites, artifacts are buried.
2. It is time consuming.
3. Some artifacts & fossils are fragile and hence they can break during excavation or
transportation.
4. It cannot be used to study recent history.
5. It may not be accurate as it depends on conclusions (inferences) & reconstructions.
6. The dating is not accurate as it can only be estimated.
7. There are very few archaeologists.
8. It is difficult to identify particular people by name, language, place of origin etc.
9. It depends on other disciplines for analysis.
How archaeological sites are located.
1. Archaeologists look for areas where tectonic forces (faulting) or erosion has taken place
exposing surfaces which may give some clues.
2. When physical features, where by the areas’ features may be different from the others around
them, thus vision.
3. Historical research, especially when an area is mentioned in an oral narratives e.g.
Babylon.
4. Long experience & skills may guide the archaeologist to locate a site.
5. During cultivation & building construction ancient objects can be accidentally exposed.
Things archaeologists use to obtain history.
1. Remains of Weapons. 2. Remains of Tools. 3. Remains of Bones.
4. Remains of Plants 5. Remains of Artwork / painting. 6. Remains of Beads. 7. Remains of
Coins [Link] of Garment. 9. Remains of Charcoal 10. Rock paintings. 11. Carbonized
seeds.12. Remains of dwellings. 13. Traditional crafts like pottery and beards.
6. Geology
This is the study of the origin, structure & composition of the earth.
 Written Sources.
 They include: books, journals, novels, plays, newspapers, magazines, diaries, annual reports.
 They are classified into three- Archives, manuscripts and printed / published sources.
 Archives are a collection of historical documents or records, which are accessible to the public
after some time. This is therefore a place where government, public & other historical
information is kept.
 Manuscript is an author’s handwritten or typed text that has not been published.
 Published / printed are those that have been typed and officially released by the author
for public use.
 There were two types of them; stone tablets & scrolls.
 Other written sources include Pictures and Parchments.
Printed sources
They include books, Charts / maps, Scrolls, paintings, clay labels, stone tablets, journals /
periodicals, Newspapers / Magazines, Diaries / Biographies, / Official Government records,
constitution, pictures.
Advantages of written sources
1. They can be stored for future reference.
2. They can reach all literate people.
3. They promote literacy.
4. They are less costly as compared to the others.
5. They are accurate as the information is preserved exactly as it was recorded.
6. They can be translated into many other languages, which will enable many people of different
languages all over the world to learn history.
7. They contain fewer biases.
8. They provide dates for events.
Disadvantages / limitations / demerits
1. Some authors omit essential information for one reason or another, hence making it
unreliable.
2. If the records are misplaced or destroyed, one may not get any information.
3. Some are not readily available for reference e.g. when controlled by the government.
4. It may be misunderstood or misinterpreted by reader for one reason or another.
5. Writers may be biased as they may write from their particular point of view.
6. It is only limited to the literate.
7. Some may not be readily available for reference.
Electronic sources
These are: microfilms, radio, Audio-visuals e.g. TV, films, Video, Databanks / Databases / Computers
These are large stores of organized information which can be accessed.
Advantages of electronics
1. It captures information as it happens at the scenes are recorded live.
2. They make the past come alive today.
3. They give facts about events on a topic.
4. The documents can be stored for future use.
5. They can easily be accessible when need be.
6. They are faster.
Limitations of electronic sources
1. They may be biased
2. They may be inaccurate.
3. They may be too expensive.
 4. They are unrealistic, thus contain exaggerated information.
N/B: the sources can also be summed up as primary (unwritten) secondary (written) and tertiary
(electronic)
Methods of Dating Fossils
a) Geological periods
These are names of periods of past time.
b) Chemical
i. Radio-carbon 14 dating
This is by measuring the rate of decay of carbon 14 in fossils. Carbon 14 is found in
carbon dioxide which is present in the atmosphere.
Its absorption by plants and animals stops at death and instead, it starts to decay. This can
then be used to estimate the date it existed
ii. Potassium Argon method.
This is used to date volcanic ash & minerals containing potassium. Potassium is
emitted during volcanic eruptions. After it is deposited, it begins to decay into the gas
organ.
c) Stratigraphy
This is the study and interpretation of the layers of rocks successively deposited at one place. Used
in sediment areas.
Fission-track dating
It is used in Pleistocene samples, where uranium is present.
It is determined by observing the tracks made in them by the fission fragments of the uranium nuclei
that they contain. This is from the time the object solidified.
d) Lexico –statistics dating
This is the statistical study of the vocabulary of language with the intention of determine their age &
their historical links with other languages.
e) Statistical dating
Through a system of averaging, the length of a generation can be determined and dates
estimated for events associated with certain generations..
[Link] MAN
Origin of man
There are three (3) theories concerning the origin of man: creation (religious), traditional
(mythical) and evolution / Scientific / Darwin’s.
Creation / Religious
This is religious, and it is found in the religious books like the Quran for the Muslims, the Bible
for the Christians and the Bhagvatgeeta for the Hindus. It emphasizes that man was created by
God.
Mythical / traditional
This theory is found in the various communities around the world. The communities have
different beliefs concerning the origin of man. It is based on their customs.
Evolution Scientific theory

This was put forward by Charles Darwin from Britain-in 1859. This was a process of change in
living organisms over a long period of time. He stated that all living things evolved over many
years from Simple living cell to more complex plants & animals. Man belongs to the hominidae
family while apes belong to the pongidae family.

Stages of evolution of early man.

1. Mutation
2. Natural selection
 3. Isolation
4. Adaption
Composition / features of Darwin’s natural selection
All creatures are uniquely different based on hereditary factors.
1. From birth, few young organisms manage to develop to maturity.
2. Those who manage to mature and reproduce are those that are able to adapt to the existing
environment.
3. Only the fittest could survive (survival of the fittest).
4. Isolation & adaption is the final stage in evolution. This is due to the increase in number and
hence such for basic needs. A species may be isolated before taking on a significantly different
physical form.
 Small creatures gradually developed into bigger ones.
 Climatic changes took place.
 He was secure on trees.
 He fed on insects, birds & leaves
 Africa, especially Eastern was cradle of mankind.
 This is due to:
1. The existence / Presence of many archaeological sites around L- Vitoria and R / Valley
area.
2. The presence of savanna grasslands found in Kenya favored hunting as a means of survival by
man e.g. forests.
3. Existence of permanent rivers which provided water for use by man.
4. Warm tropical climate which was ideal for man’s existence.
5. Geographically, Africa of which Kenya is part was centrally located, making it possible for the
early man to spread to the other parts as the continents were drifting.
 This is evident in archaeological sites in Kenya e.g. Rusinga Island, Eliye springs, Kanapoi,
Naiorokotome, Fort Ternan (near Kericho), Kariandusi (near Elementaita), Gambles cave,
Olorgesailie, Koobi Fora (near L. Turkana), Hyrax Hill, Njoro river cave, Kanjera, Gedi,
Lewa, Chesowanja etc
 In Tanzania we have sites like – Olduvai Gorge, Cheke, Eyasi, Ngorongoro, Isimila, Apis
Rock, Kalambo, Kisese, Garusi, Ngaloba, Peninj, Kondoa, Engaruka and Iringa.
 In Uganda we have Nsongezi, Napak, Magosi, Paraa, Ten cents terrace, Ishanga, Mweya,
Nyero, Nyabusora, Sango and Lolui
 In Ethiopia we have – Omo river valley, Hadar, Afar & Bodo.
Changes in early man / break off point between apes & man.
1. Man became upright / bipedal.
2. He became less hairy.
3. His skull’s size became large.
4. The jaws & teeth become smaller.
5. The hands & arms became shorter.
6. The legs and toes became shorter.
7. He became taller.
8. He had a slender body.
9. He had a bigger brain.
Differences between apes & pithecines.
1. The early man had a bigger skull, hence bigger brain.
2. Man is upright / bipedal.
3. The early man had stronger jaws & teeth, as they were smaller in size.
4. The forearms became shorter and more suitable for an upright posture.
 5. The thumb became stronger and more separate from the four fingers.
6. The leg & foot formation changed-feet & toes become shorter.
7. Man has a developed speech.
8. Man has less hair.
Stages of evolution from ape to man Pithecines
Aegyptopithecus (Egyptian Ape)
1. It is believed to be the earliest ancestor of man.
2. It was discovered in the Fayum Depression in Egypt.
3. It had a stereoscopic vision / had deep eye sockets.
4. The hands / front legs enabled him to jump skillfully from one tree to another.
5. It was quadrupedal / walked on fours.
6. It had had 32 teeth.
7. It was small / weighed about 4kgs.
1. Dryopithecus Africanus / Proconsul / “Chief”
1. It was found at Rusinga by Louis & Many Leaky in 1948
2. It had smooth forehead.
3. It had long teeth.
4. Some of his fossils were also found in East-Asia & Europe.
5. He ate meat & fruits.
6. He used fore limbs as arms.
7. He walked on fours.
2. Kenyapithecus / Ramapithecus
1. The fossils were found at Fort Ternan by Louis Leakey in 1961. This was the Kenyapithecus.
2. Other fossils were found at Siwalikis-in India and others in Europe. This was referred to as
Ramapithecus.
3. He had smaller canine teeth like those of man.
4. He had a big jaw.
5. He had bigger brain than earlier pithecines.
6. He was quadrupedal.
7. He weighed- 18-36kg.
3. Australopithecus / Southern Ape / Zinjanthropus / Nutcracker man
These were the earliest hominids closer to man. He made Oldowan
tools.
1. He was upright / bipedal.
2. He had smaller brain-450-500cc.
3. He had a large face.
4. The bodies were hairy.
5. He was short but strong.
6. He had low forehead with deep-set eyes.
7. He had large teeth & Jaws.
8. He had grinding molars.
9. The skull and jaw were much larger than modern man’s.
10. The fossils were found at Taung in Botswana by Raymond Part in1924.
11. In E. Africa, it was found at Olduvai Gorge by Mary leaky in 1959.
12. It was nick- named nut cracker
13. It was also found at Omo River valley in Ethiopia, Laetoli and near L. Natron in Tanzania
and also near Lakes Turkana & Baringo in Kenya.
 Types of Australopithecus
1. Australopithecus Anamensis
 This is the latest at Kanapoi & Allia Bay at the L Turkana by Dr Meave Leaky, Dr AllanWalker
& ‘Hominid Gang’ ( Kimeu Kamoya, Wambua Mangao, Nzube Mutiwa & Samuel Ngui)
 Other well-known archaeologists in East Africa include Dr Louis Leaky, Mary Leaky,
Jonathan Leaky, Meave Leaky, Richard Leaky, Allan Walker, Dr M. Pasnansky, Dr H. N.
N. Chitick and Dr D. W. Philipson.
2. Australopithecus Afarensis.

 The fossils were found at Afar in Ethiopia - small & bipedal.

 Some of its fossils were also found at Laetoli & Tugen (Baringo).
3. Australopithecus Africanus / Gracilis.

 He was the smaller - light & slander.

 He had a small brain.
 He had large teeth, Jaws & skull.
4. Australopithecus Robustus / Boisei

 This was the biggest and the most recent type.

 He had a brain capacity of 500-800cc.
 He was about 5ft tall.
 He was strong, tall and heavy.
 He weighed about 68kg.
 His teeth & jaw resembled modern man.
Hominids
A. Homo Habilis (man with ability)
 The fossils were found at Olduvai Gorge in 1964 by Jonathan Leakey.
 It was also found at Omo river valley & Koobi Fora.
 The structure of thumb had improved and he could handle tools.
 The shape of skull resembles modern man’s.
 He had small teeth and small jaw.
 He was about five feet tall.
 He had a brain capacity of between 500-800cc.
B. Homo Erectus (upright man)
1. His fossil was found at Hadar & Olorgesaille.
2. He invented fire.
3. The fossils were also found at Niokotone River near L. Turkana, Morocco & S. Africa.
4. He made Acheulian tools e.g. hand axe, Spear heads, Cleavers and arrow heads.
5. He was upright.
6. He had protruding Jaws.
7. He was about 5 feet, 6 inches tall / 1.2 m.
8. He had a long skull.
9. He had developed a thumb / hand for grasping.
10. He had a bigger brain between 700-1250cc.
11. He had a more developed speech than the earlier creatures.
His distinct characteristics
1. He had a big brain capacity of about 700-1250cc / High thinking capacity
2. He walked upright / bipedal.
3. He had ability to grasp objects.
4. He had a more developed speech than the earlier creatures.
5. He had a long skull.
6. He had protruding jaws.
7. He was about 5ft, 6 inches tall.
How he attempted to improve his way of life.
1. He improved stone tools by Levallois.
2. He invented fire and used it for cooking.
3. He settled in caves for security.
4. He made clothes from animal skins.
5. He developed language for effective communication.
6. He migrated to warmer areas / regions
C. Homo Sapiens (Thinking man)
1. He had a steep & well rounded forehead.
2. He had a big brain capacity -1000-1800cc.
3. He was about 5ft, 6 inches tall.
4. He was upright.
5. He had an advanced speech.
6. His fossils were found at Eliye springs near Lake Turkana, Kanjera & Kanam in Kenya.
7. The fossils were also found at Bodo & Omo R.V in Ethiopia & Nyaloba in
Tanzania.
Types sub-species of Homo sapiens
1. Rhodesian man
 His fossils were found in Northern Rhodesia (modern Zambia)
2. Neanderthal man
 His fossils were found in Neander valley – Germany-1856
3. Cro-Magnon man
 He was taller than modern man, stronger and bushy eye-brows.
 He lived in W. Europe.
D. Homo sapiens sapiens
1. He evolved from the Homo sapiens.
2. He was more advanced than Homo sapiens.
3. He plans ahead, make accurate forecasts etc.
4. They moved and settled in different regions and different environments. This
then brought about the idea of races.
5. He made more complex weapons.
6. He made garments from skins using bones.
7. He built huts.
Summary
1. Aegyptopithecus / Egyptian Ape.
2. Dryopithecus / Africanus / Proconsul / Woodland Man / “Chief”
3. Kenyapithecus / Ramapithecus / Kenyan Ape / Woodland Man / Asian Ape
4. Australopithecus / Southern Ape / Man Ape / Zinjanthropus / Nut Cracker Man
5. Homo Habilis / Handy Man / Practical Man
6. Homo Erectus / Upright Man
7. Homo sapiens / Thinking Man
8. Homo sapiens Sapiens / Modern Man.
CULTURAL & ECONOMIC PRACTICE OF THE EARLY MAN
  This time is referred to as ‘STONE AGE period.’ This is so because man used
stone to make tools.
 It is also called “Paleolithic” which means “Old Stone Age” in Greek.
 It is divided into THREE main stages, namely.
1) Old stone Age (lower Paleolithic)
-450,000-50,000 years ago
2) Middle Stone Age (mid Paleolithic)
- 50,000 – 15,000 years
- Also called Mesolithic period.
3) New/late stone Age (upper Paleolithic)
- 15,000- 1,500 years
- Also called Neolithic period.
Old Stone Age / Lower Paleolithic (450,000-50,000 years).
 It is connected to Homo habilis.
1. He made Oldowan tools in the 1st half of the period e.g. Choppers, Pebbles, Flakes.
These tools were found in places like Olduvai Gorge, Koobi Fora, Omo River Valley, Kafu
valley, Shaba province, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
2. Acheulian / Pebble tools were made in the 2nd half e.g. choppers, hand axe, cleavers, scrapers,
arrow heads, spear heads etc.
3. He communicated using gestures and whistling.
4. He used stone tools for many purposes like skinning animals.
5. He lived in small groups to assist each other.
6. He ate raw food as fire had not been invented.
7. He obtained food through hunting and gathering.
8. They used simple hunting methods like traps and throwing stones as they chased after the
animal.
9. He had no clothes, but the hairy bodies kept them warm.
10. They had no specific / permanent dwelling places, and therefore climbed on trees and
hide in caves for protection from predators.
11. He lived near lakes and rivers.
Oldowan tools were also found at Kafu valley, Shaba province, Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia.
Uses of stone tools during this stage
1. It was used skinning animals after hunting.
2. It was used for digging up roots.
3. It was used for cutting meat
4. It was used for sharpening bone / wood
5. It was used for softening or scraping animal skins.
6. It was used for protection / defense
Middle Stone Age. (50,000-15,000 years)
 This period was connected to the Homo erectus.
1. Man made improved tools named Sangoan / Lupemban by La vallois method / Mousterian
e.g. scrapers, chisel picks, dagger picks knives, spear points, choppers, daggers etc.
2. Microlithic industry also developed.
3. Man continued with hunting and gathering but in an improved way.
4. They lived in camps for protection purposes.
5. They lived in caves.
6. They fished on lakes and rivers.
7. They used simple hunting methods of chasing the animals and throwing stones at
 them as well as using traps.
8. They started wearing animal skins as clothing.
9. They started painting themselves using red ochre and oil.
10. Distinct language developed to enhance communication.
11. Rock painting was done on cave walls where they drew pictures of the animals they
hunted / Rock art.
12. They decorated themselves with necklaces made from seeds and animal bones.
13. Fire was made during this period and it was used for different purposes like cooking
food.
Effects of discovery of fire
1. It provided warmth during cold times.
2. It provided light during darkness.
3. It was used to extract poison from plants used for hunting.
4. Man used fire to soften food before eating. This was done by either cooking or roasting.
5. It was used to harden pottery.
6. Man used the fire for hunting.
7. Fire was also used the harden tips of weapons for efficiency.
8. It was used as a means of communication.
9. It was also used to preserve food.
10. Fire was used by man for security against wild animals as it was kept burning at the
entrance of the caves and below the trees during the nights.
11. It was used to clear bushes to facilitate settlement.
During the Middle Stone Age, man continued hunting in groups, but used better methods, which enable
him to kill even larger animals.
1. Man lived near Lakes and rivers.
2. He made simple stone tools.
3. Man had no specific dwelling places.
4. He hide himself from predators by climbing on trees and caves.
5. He developed a language by gestures and whistling.
6. He made ornaments. Painted himself with red clay and oil.
7. Rock painting came in to existence.
8. He lived in small groups for security, sharing of resources, companionship, and
assisting one another.
9. He wore animal skins.
10. He hunted and gathered.
NEW / LATE STONE AGE / UPPER PALAEOLITHIC / NEOLITHIC PERIOD –(15,000-
1,500 years)
 This is connected to the homo sapiens
Man made tools with skill and precision known as microlithic tools e.g. arrow heads, sickles,
Spears, bows, arrows, slings, harpoons, knives, saws and daggers.
1. Man also made shelters / cave / small huts using branches, grass & mud to protect
himself from hash weather / wild animals.
2. Man also domesticated animals & plants to ensure regular food supply.
3. He had a more developed speech which made communication easier.
4. Government developed with customs becoming laws to improve his social life.
5. H. Sapiens developed religious as evidence by the practice of burying the dead with their
possessions.
6. He had time to engage in specialized simple art and craft work / pottery
 / weaving.
7. Man lived a settled life where they established villages.
8. Man made clothing using tree barks and animal skins.
9. They decorated their bodies with red ochre / wore ornaments.
10. He decorated walls of their shelters / huts with animal paintings / animal scenes.
Others

1. He also continued improving on hunting & gathering.

2. Rock painting became more common, indicating initial stages of writing.
3. Fishing was done along rivers and lakes.
4. He started some form of trade as the exchanged items with others.
Characteristics of tools made by man during this stage.
1. They were small in size.
2. They were hafted / fixed with handles.
3. They were composite / made of more than one material.
4. They were more efficient / sharper.
5. They were specialized.
6. They were lighter.
How the upright posture improved the early man’s way of life.
1. He was able to move/walk/run faster with long strides.
2. Man could use the hands to carry out farming activities.
3. Man could use the hands to grasp items conveniently.
4. Man could spot/sight wild fruits which he used to hunt/gather from far distance.
5. Man could see the impending danger from a distance and take appropriate measures.
6. Man used hands to make tools/weapons which were used for different purposes.
7. Man used the hand to defend/attack the enemies.
8. Man used the hands to perform / carry out domestic chores / carrying young ones.
9. Man used the hands to reach for fruits higher above.
Hunting methods.
1. Chasing after the animals and throwing stones at them.
2. Using other traps / snares.
3. Digging pits and driving the animal towards it.
4. Chasing the animals towards cliffs where they fall and even break their legs.
5. Chasing the animal towards swampy areas.
Others
1. Using fire, surrounding the hiding point of the animal with fire.
2. Waiting for them at their watering points.
3. Use of other animals like the dog.
How early man obtained food.
1. Hunting
2. Gathering
3. Growing crops
4. Livestock keeping / Rearing
5. Fishing
Disadvantages of hunting by the early man.
1. It was difficult to locate or spot prey.
2. Animals were dangerous to hunt.
 3. It required many people.
4. Hunting was tiresome.
5. Hunting was time consuming.
6. Animals ran faster than man.
7. It was unreliable.
Disadvantages of hunting in groups by the early man.
1. It encouraged laziness among others.
2. Conflict may arise over sharing of the loot.
3. There would be inadequate prey for everyone.
Types of dwellings used by the early man during the Stone Age period.
1. Rock shelters.
2. Tree trunks.
3. On trees.
4. Caves
5. In forests.
Uses of stone tools by the Early Man in this stage.
1. Protection against enemies / weapons
2. Digging roots
3. Constructing shelters / caves.
4. Skinning / scraping / peeling
5. Cutting / chopping.
6. Making containers.
7. Sewing.
8. Sharpening.
9. Making other tools.
Aspects of life which have their origin in the Late Stone Age.
1. Growing of crops and keeping of animals / Agriculture.
2. Establishment of permanent settlements.
3. Making microlithic stone tools e.g. spear.
4. Crafting e.g. Pottery and basketry.
5. Beginning of government
6. Religion
Characteristics that distinguish man from primates.
1. Upright posture.
2. Man is a social being.
3. Man is a religious being.
4. Developed speech / language.
5. High brain capacity / ability to think.
6. Man is less hairy
Benefits of settling in villages during the Late stone Age.
1. For security reasons against enemies.
2. It enhanced teamwork / working together.
3. It ensured man of permanent dwelling, thereby reducing movement.
4. Man began growing crops ensuring regular food supply.
5. Man was able to keep livestock which provided animal products, thus reducing his
hunting activities.
6. It promoted interaction, thus sharing of ideas and resources.
7. People were able to exchange goods and services, hence getting what they did not have.
8. It enabled them to build better shelters, thereby protecting themselves from harsh weather
conditions.
Reasons why the early man lived in groups during the Stone Age.
1. For companionship.
2. For security.
3. To help one another.
4. To share resources.
Why the early man hunted in groups during the Stone Age period.
1. Wild animals are dangerous/could kill people.
2. They could surround the animal.
3. Spotting/locating the animal was easier.
4. Less time was used to catch the animal/less tiresome.
5. To give moral encouragement/team spirit.
6. They could catch more animals.