Earth Science a Mars-sized protoplanet early in its history,

around 4.5 billion years ago.

A. Layers of the Earth
• The impact would have melted a significant
1. Crust portion of Earth's mantle and ejected
material into orbit around the planet,
• Comprises the Earth's outermost layer. eventually coalescing to form the Moon.
• Divided into continental crust (thicker, • This theory explains some unique
mainly composed of granite) and oceanic characteristics of the Earth-Moon system,
crust (thinner, mainly composed of basalt). such as the Moon's relatively small iron core
• Relatively cool and brittle. compared to Earth's.
2. Mantle 3. Condensation Theory
• Below the crust, extending to about 2,900 • Focuses on the formation of solid particles
kilometers (1,800 miles) deep. (condensation nuclei) in the cooling gas
• Divided into upper mantle (solid) and lower cloud of the early solar system.
mantle (denser and semi-fluid). • As the solar nebula cooled, atoms and
3. Outer Core molecules began to condense into solid
grains.
• Surrounds the solid inner core. • These grains acted as seeds for further
• Composed of liquid iron and nickel. growth, eventually forming planetesimals
• Convection currents in this layer generate and, ultimately, planets.
• Earth's magnetic field through the dynamo • This theory accounts for the differentiation
effect. of planets into layers based on their
• About 2,300 kilometers (1,400 miles) thick. densities, with rocky planets forming closer
to the Sun and gas giants forming farther
4. Inner Core away.
• Located at the Earth's center. 4. Core Accretion Theory
• Solid sphere primarily composed of iron and
nickel. • Explains the formation of gas giants like
• Extreme pressure keeps it solid despite high Jupiter and Saturn.
temperatures (up to 5,700 degrees Celsius • Proposes that these planets formed from a
or 10,300 degrees Fahrenheit). solid core that accumulated gas from the
• Radius of approximately 1,220 kilometers surrounding nebula over time.
(760 miles). • Initially, solid cores formed from the
• Contributes to Earth's magnetic field by accretion of planetesimals.
providing a solid rotation for the outer core's • Once these cores reached a critical mass,
fluid motions. they began gravitationally attracting
hydrogen and helium gas from the nebula,
eventually growing into gas giants.
B. Beginning of Earth (Theories)
1. Nebular Hypothesis C. Rocks
• Widely accepted theory proposing that the Rocks are naturally occurring aggregates of
solar system formed from a rotating disk of
gas and dust called a solar nebula about 4.6 minerals, mineraloids, or organic materials.
billion years ago. Classifications
• Gravity caused the nebula to collapse,
forming a central protostar (the Sun) 1. Igneous Rocks
surrounded by a flattened disk of material.
• Formed from the solidification of molten
• Within this disk, small particles collided and
rock material (magma or lava).
stuck together, gradually forming
• Classified based on their texture (coarse-
planetesimals, which further accumulated to
grained, fine-grained, glassy) and mineral
form planets, including Earth.
composition (mafic, intermediate, felsic).
• This theory is supported by observations of
• Examples include granite, basalt, and
other star systems, which often exhibit
obsidian.
similar disk structures during their formation.
2. Sedimentary Rocks
2. Giant Impact Hypothesis
• Formed through the deposition and
• Suggests that the Moon formed from debris
lithification of sediment particles (fragments
ejected during a collision between Earth and
 of other rocks, minerals, or organic Water Vapor: Varies from 0 to 4% depending on the
materials). region and weather conditions.
• Classified based on their mode of formation
(clastic, chemical, organic) and texture
Structure of the Atmosphere
(clastic, crystalline, bioclastic).
• Examples include sandstone, limestone, 1. Troposphere: 0-12 km
and shale.
• Closest to Earth's surface.
3. Metamorphic Rocks • Weather occurs here.
• Temperature decreases with altitude.
• Formed from pre-existing rocks (igneous,
sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks) 2. Stratosphere:12-50 km
subjected to high temperature, pressure, or
chemically active fluids. • Contains the ozone layer, which absorbs
• Classified based on their texture (foliated, and scatters ultraviolet solar radiation.
non-foliated) and degree of meta morphism • Temperature increases with altitude due to
(low-grade, high-grade). ozone absorption of UV radiation.
• Examples include marble, slate, and schist. 3. Mesosphere: 50-85 km
Formation Processes • Temperature decreases with altitude.
1. Igneous Rock Formation • Meteors burn up in this layer.

• Cooling and solidification of molten rock 4. Thermosphere: 85-600 km

material (magma or lava).
• Temperature increases with altitude.
• Intrusive igneous rocks form below the
• Contains ionized gasses and auroras occur
Earth's surface, cooling slowly and forming
here.
large crystals.
• Extrusive igneous rocks form at the Earth's 5. Exosphere: 600 km and beyond
surface, cooling rapidly and forming fine-
grained textures. • Transition to space.
• Air is extremely thin.
2. Sedimentary Rock Formation
Weathering and erosion break down existing rocks
into sediment particles. E. Weather

Transportation and deposition of sediment by water, Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a specific
wind, or ice. time and place, influenced by various factors such
as temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and
Compaction and cementation of sediment particles visibility.
to form solid rock.
3. Metamorphic Rock Formation
Climate vs. Weather
• Heat and pressure from tectonic forces or
deep burial transform existing rocks. Weather: Short-term atmospheric conditions at a
specific place and time.
• Recrystallization of minerals without
melting. Climate: Long-term average of weather patterns
• Development of new mineral assemblages over a significant period (usually 30 years or more).
and textures, such as foliation or banding.

Factors Influencing Climate

D. Atmosphere
1. Latitude: Affects the angle and intensity of solar
The Earth's atmosphere is a layer of gasses radiation.
surrounding the planet, essential for life. It protects
us from harmful solar radiation, provides breathable 2. Elevation: Higher elevations have cooler
air, and helps regulate temperature. temperatures.

Composition of the Atmosphere 3. Ocean Currents: Distribute heat around the

Nitrogen (N2): 78% globe.
Oxygen (O2): 21% 4. Topography: Mountains can block air movement
Argon (Ar): 0.93% and precipitation patterns.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2): 0.04%
Trace Gases: Includes neon, helium, methane, 5. Vegetation: Influences heat absorption and
krypton, and hydrogen. moisture retention.
 main planets and do not clear their orbits of
other debris.
F. Basic Astronomy
3. Other Components
Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial
objects, space, and the universe. It involves the • Asteroid Belt: Region between Mars and
observation and understanding of phenomena Jupiter filled with asteroids.
beyond Earth's atmosphere. • Kuiper Belt: Region beyond Neptune,
containing many icy bodies and dwarf
planets.
Key Concepts and Terms • Oort Cloud: A spherical shell of icy objects
surrounding the Solar System.
1. Celestial Objects

• Stars: Massive, luminous spheres of plasma Stellar Evolution

held together by gravity.
• Planets: Celestial bodies orbiting a star, Stars form from clouds of gas and dust (nebulae)
massive enough to be rounded by their own and go through several stages:
gravity.
1. Protostar: A contracting mass of gas that
• Moons (Satellites): Objects orbiting planets.
represents an early stage of star formation.
• Asteroids: Small rocky bodies orbiting the
Sun, primarily found in the asteroid belt 2. Main Sequence: The longest stage in a star's life,
between Mars and Jupiter. where it fuses hydrogen into helium.
• Comets: Icy bodies that release gas or dust.
3. Red Giant/Supergiant: A later stage where the
They have a nucleus, a coma, and
star expands after exhausting hydrogen in its core.
sometimes a tail.
• Meteoroids: Small particles from comets or 4. Final Stages: Depending on the mass:
asteroids.
• White Dwarf: Remnant of a low to medium
• Galaxies: Massive systems of stars, stellar
mass star.
remnants, interstellar gas, dust, and dark
matter, bound together by gravity. • Neutron Star: Remnant of a high-mass star.
• Nebulae: Clouds of gas and dust in space, • Black Hole: Result of the collapse of a very
often regions where new stars are born. massive star.

2. Celestial Movements:

• Rotation: The spinning of a celestial body on Galaxies

its axis. Galaxies are vast systems containing millions to
• Revolution: The orbit of one celestial body billions of stars.
around another.
• Orbital Eccentricity: Describes how elliptical Types of Galaxies:
(oval) an orbit is. 1. Spiral Galaxies: Have a flat, rotating disk with a
central bulge and spiral arms (e.g., Milky Way).

The Solar System 2. Elliptical Galaxies: Range from spherical to

elongated shapes, with little to no new star
1. The Sun formation.
• Structure: Composed of the core, radiative 3. Irregular Galaxies: Lack a distinct shape, often
zone, convective zone, photosphere, chaotic in appearance.
chromosphere, and corona.
• Nuclear Fusion: The Sun's energy is
produced by the fusion of hydrogen into Cosmology and the Universe
helium in its core.
1. Big Bang Theory:
2. Planets
The prevailing cosmological model explaining the
• Terrestrial Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, early development of the Universe. The Universe
• Mars - Rocky surfaces, relatively small. began from an extremely dense and hot state and
• Gas Giants: Jupiter, Saturn - Large, has been expanding since.
composed mostly of hydrogen and helium.
2. Expanding Universe:
• Ice Giants: Uranus, Neptune - Composed of
heavier elements like water, ammonia, and Discovered by Edwin Hubble, the observation that
methane. galaxies are moving away from us, indicating the
• Dwarf Planets: Pluto, Eris, Haumea, expansion of the Universe.
Makemake, and Ceres - Smaller than the
Dark Matter and Dark Energy:
Dark Matter: Invisible matter that does not emit light
or energy, detected through its gravitational effects.
Dark Energy: A mysterious force driving the
accelerated expansion of the Universe.
Biology - Occurs through migration and breeding
between populations.
- Increases genetic variation within a
A. Evolution population.

Evolution is the process by which species of 3. Genetic Drift:

organisms change over time through variations and
- Random changes in allele frequencies in a
natural selection. It explains the diversity of life on
population.
Earth and is a central concept in biology.
- More significant in small populations.
- Includes the founder effect (when a new
population is started by a small number of
Key Concepts in Evolution individuals) and the bottleneck effect (when
1. Natural Selection: a population is drastically reduced in size).

• Proposed by Charles Darwin and Alfred 4. Natural Selection:

Russel Wallace. - Differential survival and reproduction of
• Organisms with traits that enhance survival individuals due to differences in phenotype.
and reproduction are more likely to pass on
their genes to the next generation. Types of natural selection:
• Over time, beneficial traits become more - Directional Selection: Favors one extreme
common in the population. phenotype.
2. Genetic Variation: - Stabilizing Selection: Favors intermediate
phenotypes.
• Essential for evolution. - Disruptive Selection: Favors both extreme
• Caused by mutations, gene flow, genetic phenotypes.
recombination during sexual reproduction,
5. Sexual Selection:
and genetic drift.
• Provides the raw material for natural - A form of natural selection where certain
selection to act upon. traits increase an individual's chance of
mating.
3. Adaptation:
- Can lead to traits that improve mating
• Traits that enhance an organism's ability to success but may not necessarily improve
survive and reproduce in a particular survival (e.g., peacock feathers).
environment.
• Result of the process of natural selection.
Evidence for Evolution
4. Speciation:
1. Fossil Record:
• The formation of new and distinct species in
the course of evolution. - Shows a chronological record of species
• Can occur through mechanisms such as that have existed over geological time.
allopatric speciation (geographical isolation) - Demonstrates gradual changes in species.
and sympatric speciation (reproductive
2. Comparative Anatomy:
isolation within the same area).
- Homologous structures: Body parts that are
5. Common Descent:
similar in structure but different in function,
• All living organisms share a common indicating common ancestry (e.g., the limb
ancestor. bones of vertebrates).
• Life can be traced back through a tree-like - Analogous structures: Body parts that have
diagram called a phylogenetic tree. a similar function but different structures,
indicating convergent evolution (e.g., wings
of birds and insects).
- Vestigial structures: Reduced or unused
Mechanisms of Evolution
features that were functional in an ancestor
1. Mutation: (e.g., human appendix).
- Random changes in the DNA sequence. 3. Molecular Biology:
- Can introduce new genetic variations.
- DNA and protein comparisons show genetic
- May be beneficial, neutral, or harmful.
similarities between species.
2. Gene Flow: - The more closely related two species are,
the more similar their DNA sequences.
- Transfer of genetic material between
populations. 4. Biogeography:
 - Study of the distribution of species and - Omnivores: Organisms that eat both
ecosystems in geographic space and plants and animals (e.g., humans) .;
through geological time. - Decomposers (Detritivores): Organisms
- Island biogeography shows that species that break down dead organic matter,
evolve differently in isolated environments. returning nutrients to the soil (e.g.,
fungi, bacteria).
5. Embryology:
2. Abiotic Factors:
- Study of the development of embryos
shows similar stages in different species, • Sunlight: Primary energy source for
indicating common ancestry. most ecosystems.
• Water: Essential for all living organisms.
• Temperature: Influences metabolic rates
Evolutionary Theories and Models and distribution of organisms.
• Soil: Provides nutrients and a medium
1. Gradualism - Evolutionary changes occur
for plant growth.
slowly and steadily over long periods.
• Air: Contains oxygen for respiration and
2. Punctuated Equilibrium - Evolutionary carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
changes occur in rapid bursts followed by long • Nutrients: Chemical elements required
periods of stability. (Proposed by Stephen Jay for growth and development (e.g.,
Gould and Niles Eldredge.) nitrogen, phosphorus).

Human Evolution C. Basic Genetics and Heredity

• Humans share a common ancestor with Genetics is the study of genes, heredity, and
chimpanzees and other primates. variation in living organisms. It explains how traits
are passed from parents to offspring through the
Key stages in human evolution: transmission of genetic information.
- Australopithecus: Early bipedal hominins.
- Homo habilis: First to use stone tools.
- Homo erectus: First to use fire and spread Key Concepts in Genetics
out of Africa.
1. DNA and Genes:
- Homo sapiens: Modern humans,
characterized by complex language, art, • DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The molecule
and technology. that carries genetic information in living
organisms. It is composed of nucleotides:
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and
B. Ecosystems guanine (G). It is a double helix structure
discovered by James Watson and Francis
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms Crick.
(biotic factors) interacting with their physical
• Genes: Segments of DNA that code for
environment (abiotic factors). Ecosystems can vary
proteins or RNA molecules. It is located on
in size from a small pond to a large forest or ocean.
chromosomes within the cell nucleus.
2. Chromosomes:
Components of Ecosystems
• Structures made of DNA and proteins
1. Biotic Factors: (histones) that contain genes.
• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs):
• Producers (Autotrophs): Organisms that 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex
produce their own food through chromosomes (XX in females, XY in males).
photosynthesis (plants, algae) or
chemosynthesis (certain bacteria). 3. The Central Dogma:
• Consumers (Heterotrophs): Organisms that
• Describes the flow of genetic information:
obtain energy by consuming other
DNA -> RNA -> Protein
organisms.
• Transcription: The process of copying a
- Primary Consumers: Herbivores that eat
gene's DNA sequence into mRNA.
producers (e.g., rabbits).
- Secondary Consumers: Carnivores that • Translation: The process of translating the
eat herbivores (e.g., snakes). mRNA sequence into a protein at the
- Tertiary Consumers: Carnivores that eat ribosome.
other carnivores (e.g., hawks); Mendelian Genetics
 • Founded by Gregor Mendel through his • X-linked Recessive: Recessive gene on the X
work with pea plants. chromosome; more common in males (e.g.,
• Laws of Inheritance: hemophilia, color blindness).
- Law of Segregation: Each individual has
two alleles for each gene, which
segregate during gamete formation, so Molecular Genetics
each gamete carries only one allele.
- Law of Independent Assortment: Genes • Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence.
for different traits can segregate - Point Mutations: Single nucleotide
independently during the formation of changes (e.g., sickle cell anemia).
gametes. - Frameshift Mutations: Insertions or
deletions that shift the reading frame.
Key Terms • Gene Expression Regulation: Genes can be
1. Allele: Different forms of a gene (e.g., dominant turned on or off depending on the needs of
and recessive). the cell.
2. Genotype: The genetic makeup of an organism - Operons: Groups of genes regulated
(e.g., AA, Aa, aa). together (e.g., lac operon in bacteria).
3. Phenotype: The physical expression of a trait - Epigenetics: Study of changes in gene
(e.g., flower color). expression that do not involve changes
4. Homozygous: Having two identical alleles for a to the DNA sequence (e.g., DNA
gene (e.g., AA or aa). methylation, histone modification).
5. Heterozygous: Having two different alleles for a
gene (e.g., Aa).
6. Punnett Squares: A tool used to predict the Genetic Technologies
probability of inheriting specific traits. Example:
• DNA Sequencing: Determining the exact
Crossing two heterozygous pea plants (Aa x
sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.
Aa):
• Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Technique
- Genotypic Ratio: 1 AA : 2 Aa : 1 aa
used to amplify a segment of DNA.
- Phenotypic Ratio: 3 dominant : 1
recessive
D. Anatomy of the Human Body
Human anatomy is the scientific study of the
Non-Mendelian Genetics
structure of the human body. It involves
• Incomplete Dominance: The heterozygous understanding the organization and relationships of
phenotype is intermediate between the two different body parts, including organs, tissues, and
homozygous phenotypes (e.g., red and white systems.
flowers produce pink flowers).
• Codominance: Both alleles in the heterozygote
are fully expressed (e.g., AB blood type). Levels of Organization
• Multiple Alleles: More than two possible alleles
1. Cells: The basic unit of life.
for a gene (e.g., ABO blood group).
• Polygenic Inheritance: Multiple genes influence 2. Tissues: Groups of similar cells performing a
a single trait (e.g., skin color, height). specific function.
• Pleiotropy: One gene affects multiple traits
3. Organs: Structures composed of two or more
(e.g., Marfan syndrome).
tissue types that work together to perform specific
• Epistasis: One gene can mask the expression
functions.
of another gene (e.g., coat color in mice).
4. Organ Systems: Groups of organs that work
together to perform complex functions.
Genetic Disorders and Inheritance Patterns
5. Organism: A complete living being.
• Autosomal Dominant: Only one copy of the
dominant allele is needed to express the trait
(e.g., Huntington's disease). Major Organ Systems
• Autosomal Recessive: Two copies of the
1. Integumentary System:
recessive allele are needed to express the trait
(e.g., cystic fibrosis). • Components: Skin, hair, nails, glands.
• X-linked Dominant: Dominant gene on the X • Functions:
chromosome; affects both males and females - Protects the body from environmental
(e.g., Rett syndrome). damage.
- Regulates temperature.
 - Sensory reception. • Components: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
- Synthesizes vitamin D. bronchi, lungs.
• Functions:
2. Skeletal System:
- Facilkates gas exchange (oxygen and
• Components: Bones, cartilage, ligaments, carbon dioxide).
joints. - Regulates blood pH.
• Functions:
9. Digestive System:
- Provides structure and support.
- Protects internal organs. • Components: Mouth, esophagus, stomach,
- Facilitates movement. intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder.
- Stores minerals (e.g., calcium, • Functions:
phosphorus). - Breaks down food into absorbable units.
- Produces blood cells (hematopciesis). - Absorbs nutrients.
- Eliminates waste.
3. Muscular System:
10. Urinary System:
• Components: Skeletal muscles, smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles. • Components: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.
• Functions: • Functions:
- Produces movement. - Removes waste products from the
- Maintains posture. blood.
- Generates heat. - Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-
base balance.
4. Nervous System:
- Controls blood volume and pressure.
• Components: Brain, spinal cord, peripheral
11. Reproductive System:
nerves, sensory organs.
• Functions: • Components:
- Controls and coordinates body activities. - Male: Testes, vas deferens, prostate,
- Processes sensory information. penis.
- Facilitates communication between body - Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus,
parts. vagina.
• Functions:
5. Endocrine System:
- Produces sex cells (sperm and eggs).
• Components: Glands (e.g., pituitary, thyroid, - Facilitates fertilization and development
adrenal), hormones. of offspring.
• Functions: - Produces sex hormones.
- Regulates body functions through
- hormones.
- Maintains homeostasis. Major Organs and Their Functions
- Controls growth, metabolism, and
1. Brain:
- reproductive processes.
- Controls voluntary and involuntary
6. Cardiovascular System:
activities.
• Components: Heart, blood vessels (arteries, - Processes sensory information.
veins, capillaries), blood. - Facilitates cognition, emotion, and
• Functions: memory.
- Transports nutrients, gasses, hormones,
2. Heart:
and wastes.
- Regulates body temperature. - Pumps blood throughout the body.
- Protects against disease and blood loss. - Maintains blood pressure and
circulation.
7. Lymphatic System:
3. Lungs:
• Components: Lymph nodes, lymph vessels,
spleen, thymus, tonsils. - Facilitate the exchange of oxygen and
• Functions: carbon dioxide.
- Returns excess tissue fluid to the - Help regulate blood pH.
bloodstream.
4. Liver:
- Filters and traps pathogens.
- Supports immune function. - Detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes
drugs.
8. Respiratory System:
- Produces bile for digestion.
- Stores glycogen and vitamins.
5. Kidneys:
- Filter blood to produce urine.
- Regulate electrolyte balance and blood
• pressure.
6. Stomach:

• Break down food with acid and

enzymes.
• Begins the digestion of proteins.
7. Intestines:

• Absorb nutrients and water.

• Transport waste to be excreted.

Tissues of the Body

1. Epithelial Tissue:

• Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Functions include protection, absorption,
and secretion.
2. Connective Tissue:

• Supports and binds other tissues.

• Includes bone, cartilage, blood, and
adipose tissue.
3. Muscle Tissue:

• Contracts to produce movement.

• Types: Skeletal (voluntary), Cardiac
(involuntary, heart), Smooth (involuntary,
walls of organs).
4. Nervous Tissue:

• Composed of neurons and supporting

cells (glial cells).
• Transmits electrical impulses throughout
the body.

Homeostasis

• The body's ability to maintain a stable internal

environment despite changes in external
conditions.
• Involves various feedback mechanisms:
- Negative Feedback: Reduces the output
or activity to return to a set point (e.g.,
regulation of body temperature).
- Positive Feedback: Increases the output
or activity to amplify the change (e.g.,
childbirth contractions).
Chemistry • Examples: Reactivity with acids,
flammability, oxidation states,
corrosiveness.
A. Matter and Its Classifications
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up The Periodic Table
space. It is composed of atoms and molecules and
The periodic table organizes elements based on
exists in various forms and states.
their atomic number and properties. Elements in
the same group (column) have similar chemical
properties.
States of Matter

• Solid
• Liquid 1. Groups:
• Gas - Vertical columns numbered from 1 to 18.
• Plasma - Elements in the same group have
similar valence electron configurations.

Classification of Matter 2. Periods:

Matter can be classified based on its composition - Horizontal rows numbered from 1 to 7.
and properties into pure substances and mixtures. - Properties of elements change
progressively across a period.
3. Major Element Groups:
1. Pure Substances:
- Alkali Metals (Group 1): Highly reactive,
• Elements: especially with water (e.g., sodium,
- Consist of only one type of atom. potassium).
- Cannot be broken down into simpler - Alkaline Earth Metals (Group 2):
substances by chemical means. Reactive metals (e.g., calcium,
• Compounds: magnesium).
- Consist of two or more different types of - Transition Metals (Groups 3-12): Metals
atoms chemically bonded together. with variable oxidation states and
colorful compounds (e.g., iron, copper).
- Halogens (Group 17): Highly reactive
2. Mixtures nonmetals (e.g., chlorine, fluorine).
- Noble Gases (Group 18): Inert gasses
• Homogeneous Mixtures (Solutions): with very low reactivity (e.g., helium,
- Uniform composition throughout. neon).
- Components are evenly distributed and
cannot be distinguished.
- Examples: Salt water, air. Conservation Laws
• Heterogeneous Mixtures:
- Non-uniform composition. 1. Law of Conservation of Mass:
- Components are not evenly distributed
- Mass is neither created nor destroyed in
and can be distinguished.
a chemical reaction.
- Examples: Salad, sandy water.
- The total mass of the reactants equals
the total mass of the products.

Properties of Matter 2. Law of Conservation of Energy:

1. Physical Properties: - Energy cannot be created or destroyed,

only transformed.
• Characteristics that can be observed - In physical and chemical changes, the
without changing the substance's chemical total energy remains constant.
identity.
• Examples: Color, odor, melting point, boiling
point, density, state of matter.
2. Chemical Properties:

• Characteristics that describe a substance's

ability to undergo chemical changes.