Debre Markos University Institute of Technology
Department of mechanical and industrial engineering
Machine Element I (MEng_3152)
Chapter 1:
Introductory concepts and definitions
Learning Outcome
✓ Introduction of basic terms and definitions in mechanical design.
✓ Explain the stress-strain characteristics of different materials.
✓ Understand stress concentration and failure causes and types.
✓ Comprehend and compare the various failure theories that suit the failure
conditions.
✓ Clarify the basic parameters and designing procedures for permanent and non-
permanent joints.
✓ Understand the major principles behind the function of mechanical springs and
design different types of springs.
✓ Make dimensional and material decisions for pressure vessels.
✓ Interpret numerical figures into realistic parameter
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1.1. Introduction to mechanical design
❑ Mechanical design is a core branch of engineering that focuses on the development and
creation of mechanical systems, components, and devices.
❑ It refers to the process of designing parts, components, products, or systems that are
mechanical in nature.
❑ It involves applying principles of physics, mathematics, and material science to ensure that a
mechanical system performs effectively, efficiently, and safely.
❑ Mechanical design is essential in the creation of machines, from simple tools to complex
machinery like automobiles, airplanes, and manufacturing systems.
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Key Aspects of Mechanical Design
1. Mechanical design Process: typically follows a structured process, which includes:
➢ Problem identification: Clearly understanding the problem (specific need) that the design is
intended to solve.
➢ Conceptual design (Preliminary Design): Brainstorming and sketching different ideas and
concepts to meet the needs. Creating rough models and performing initial analyses to refine the
concept. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software is often used to create 3D models.
➢ Detailed design: Refining the concept into detailed specifications including dimensions,
tolerances, materials, and performance criteria. Advanced simulations like FEA are often
performed to predict how the part will behave under real-world conditions.
➢ Prototyping and testing: Building a physical prototype and testing it to validate the design
functionality
➢ Implementation and production: After the design has been validated, it moves into the
manufacturing phase. 3
Key Aspects of Mechanical Design
2. Engineering Analysis: Designers use principles like statics, dynamics, thermodynamics,
and mechanics of materials to ensure that their design can handle the expected forces,
temperatures, and other environmental conditions. Make Stress and Strain Analysis
3. Material Selection: Choosing the right materials is crucial for mechanical design. Factors like
strength, durability, weight, cost, and environmental impact (corrosion production,
operation, and disposal) are considered to ensure that the chosen materials meet the design
requirements to intended its lifespan.
4. Use common mechanical design tool: Modern mechanical design heavily relies on different
software, which allows designers to create 3D models of their components. This helps in
visualizing the product, performing simulations, and improving the accuracy of the design. 3
Key Aspects of Mechanical Design
Common Tools Used in Mechanical Design:
• CAD (Computer-Aided Design): Software like SolidWorks, AutoCAD, and CATIA allows
designers to create 2D and 3D models of components.
• FEA (Finite Element Analysis): Tools such as ANSYS and Abaqus are used to simulate and
analyze the behavior of components under different forces and conditions.
• CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing): Software that links the design with manufacturing
processes.
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Key Aspects of Mechanical Design
5. Manufacturing Considerations: Designers must consider how their designs will be
manufactured. This includes understanding various manufacturing processes such as
machining, casting, 3D printing, and assembly.
• A design should be both functional and manufacturable.
• Functionality: Every mechanical design starts with understanding the function the design is
supposed to achieve.
6. Failure Analysis and Safety: Ensuring that the design is safe for users and will not fail under
normal operating conditions is critical. This often involves failure mode analysis, which
identifies potential points of failure and addresses them in the design phase.
▪ Ergonomics and Aesthetics: For products used by humans, it’s important that they are easy to
use and comfortable. The aesthetic design also matters, especially in consumer products.
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Applications of Mechanical Design
✓ Mechanical design is applied in numerous industries, such as:
▪ Automotive: Design of engines, transmission systems, brakes, and suspensions.
▪ Aerospace: Design of aircraft structures, propulsion systems, and landing gear.
▪ Robotics: Design of mechanical limbs, actuators, and sensors.
▪ Consumer products: Design of everyday items like household appliances, tools, and
gadgets.
Importance of Mechanical Design:
❑ Mechanical design is foundational to the development of any physical product.
❑ It ensures that devices, systems, and components are designed to meet their intended
purpose while considering safety, functionality, and efficiency.
❑ Effective mechanical design can lead to innovations in technology, reduce costs in
manufacturing, and improve product reliability
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1.2. Engineering Materials
Engineering materials are substances used in the creation of machines, structures, and other
products that perform specific functions.
• These materials must meet criteria such as strength, durability, weight, and cost to ensure they
work efficiently in various engineering applications.
➢ The primary function of an engineering material is to withstand applied loading without
breaking and without exhibiting excessive deflection.
• These materials are essential in construction, manufacturing, automotive, aerospace,
electronics, and many other industries.
• They can be broadly categorized into the following groups:
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1.2.1. Classification of Engineering Materials:
1. Metals: Metals are the most widely used engineering materials due to their strength, ductility, and
ability to conduct electricity and heat. Metals are characterized by their high strength,
conductivity (thermal and electrical), and ductility. They can be further classified into:
o Ferrous Metals: Contain iron as the primary element.
▪ Steel: Alloy of iron and carbon. Widely used in construction, automotive, and manufacturing
industries due to its strength, affordability and versatility .
▪ Cast Iron: Contains a higher percentage of carbon compared to steel, giving it good wear
resistance and high compressive strength. Excellent for compression applications, used in pipes,
engines, etc.
▪ Strong and tough but prone to rusting without treatment.
▪ Used in engine blocks, pipes, and construction
▪ Stainless Steel: Resistant to corrosion due to chromium content.
▪ Tool Steel: Used for cutting tools, has high hardness. 3
Non-Ferrous Metals: Do not contain significant amounts of iron.
▪ Aluminum: Lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and widely used in aerospace,
automotive, and packaging industries.
▪ Copper: Known for its excellent electrical and thermal conductivity, used in electrical
wiring and electronics.
▪ Titanium: High strength-to-weight ratio, corrosion resistance, and used in aerospace,
biomedical, and marine industries.
▪ Magnesium: Lightweight but not as strong as aluminum, used in lightweight alloys.
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2. Polymers (Plastics): Polymers are materials made from long chains of molecules and are known for their
flexibility, light weight, and ease of molding. They are used in a wide range of applications.
o Thermoplastics: Can be heated and re-shaped multiple times.
▪ Polyethylene (PE): Used in packaging (plastic bags), containers, and piping.
▪ Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC): Used in plumbing, construction, and electrical cable insulation.
▪ Polystyrene (PS): Used in packaging materials, disposable cutlery, and insulation.
▪ Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE or Teflon): Excellent chemical resistance, used in non-stick
coatings.
▪ Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS): Used in 3D printing and automotive parts.
o Thermosets: Harden irreversibly when heated and cannot be remolded (set permanently).
▪ Epoxy Resins: Used in adhesives, coatings, and electrical insulators.
▪ Polyester Resins: Used in fiberglass, automotive parts, and coatings.
▪ Phenolic Resins: Heat-resistant, used in electrical insulators.
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3. Ceramics: Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials known for their hardness, heat
resistance, and insulating properties. They are used in high-temperature and wear-resistant
applications.
o Oxide Ceramics: Include alumina (Al₂O₃) and zirconia (ZrO₂), used in electronics, cutting
tools, and biomedical implants.
o Silicon Carbide (SiC): Known for its hardness and high-temperature stability, used in
abrasives, cutting tools, and automotive parts.
o Glass: An amorphous ceramic used in windows, optical lenses, and containers due to its
transparency and brittleness.
o Clay Products (e.g., bricks, tiles): Used in construction..
o Porcelain: Used in electrical insulators and art.
o Alumina (Al2O3): Used in biomedical applications and as an electrical insulator.
o Zirconia (ZrO2): Used in dental implants and thermal barrier coatings.
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4. Composites: Composites are made by combining two or more materials to obtain desired
properties that are superior to the individual components.
▪ The two main components of a composite are the matrix (binding material) and the
reinforcement (providing strength).
o Glass Fiber-Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) (Fiberglass): Made of glass fibers embedded in a
polymer matrix, used in boats, pipes, and automotive panels. Lightweight and strong, used in
automotive, marine, and construction industries.
o Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (CFRP): High strength and low weight, used in
aerospace, sports equipment, and automotive industries.
o Concrete: A composite of cement, sand, gravel, and water, widely used in construction.
• Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMC): Ceramics reinforced with fibers for high-temperature
applications, like in jet engines.
• Metal Matrix Composites (MMC): Metals reinforced with fibers or particles for improved
strength and temperature resistance.
o Used in automotive engines and aerospace components. 14
5. Alloys: Alloys are a mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. They are
created to enhance specific properties like strength, toughness, corrosion resistance, or
conductivity.
o Steel Alloys: Alloyed with elements like chromium, molybdenum, or nickel to improve strength,
toughness, or corrosion resistance (e.g., stainless steel).
o Bronze: An alloy of copper and tin, known for its wear resistance and used in bearings,
sculptures, and marine applications.
o Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc, used in plumbing, musical instruments, and decorative items.
6. Semiconductors: Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between that of
a conductor (like metals) and an insulator (like ceramics or polymers). They are essential for
modern electronics. 15
6. Semiconductors:
o Silicon: The most commonly used semiconductor material, found in computer chips, solar cells, and
other electronic devices.
o Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Used in high-speed electronic devices and optoelectronics like LEDs
and lasers.
o Germanium: Historically important in early transistors, now less commonly used than silicon.
7. Smart Materials: Smart materials change their properties in response to external stimuli such as
temperature, pressure, or electromagnetic fields.
o Shape Memory Alloys (SMA): Can return to a predetermined shape when heated. Used in medical
devices and actuators. (e.g., nitinol).
o Piezoelectric Materials: Generate an electric charge when mechanically stressed. Used in sensors,
actuators, and ultrasound equipment.
o Electrochromic Materials: Change color or transparency when an electric voltage is applied.
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8. Biomaterials
Biomaterials are used in medical applications, such as implants, tissue engineering, and drug
delivery systems.
• Titanium Alloys: Biocompatible and corrosion-resistant, used for bone and joint
replacements.
• Polymers like PLA (Polylactic Acid): Biodegradable, used in medical implants and sutures.
• Hydroxyapatite: A ceramic material used in bone grafts and coatings for implants.
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1.2.2. Key Properties of Engineering Materials:
• Strength: The ability to withstand applied loads without failure. Includes tensile strength,
compressive strength, and shear strength.
• Ductility: The ability of a material to deform under tensile stress, often measured by
elongation.
• Hardness: The resistance of a material to surface deformation or scratching.
• Toughness: The ability to absorb energy and plastically deform without fracturing.
• Corrosion Resistance: The ability of a material to resist chemical degradation, often due to
moisture or chemicals.
• Thermal Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct heat.
• Electrical Conductivity: The ability of a material to conduct electricity.
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1.2.3. Applications of Engineering Materials:
• Automotive Industry: Uses a wide range of materials including steel, aluminum, polymers, and
composites for engine components, body panels, and tires.
• Aerospace Industry: Relies on lightweight, high-strength materials like titanium alloys, carbon
composites, and aluminum.
• Construction: Concrete, steel, and glass are commonly used in building structures, bridges, and
infrastructure.
• Electronics: Semiconductors like silicon and materials like copper are used in microchips,
wiring, and circuit boards.
• Biomedical Engineering: Titanium, stainless steel, ceramics, and polymers are used in
implants, prosthetics, and medical devices.
➢In summary, engineering materials are selected based on their mechanical, thermal,
electrical, and chemical properties to suit specific engineering applications.
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1.2.4. Selection Criteria for Engineering Materials:
• Mechanical Properties: Strength, ductility, hardness, toughness.
• Thermal Properties: Thermal conductivity, expansion, heat resistance.
• Electrical Properties: Conductivity or insulation.
• Chemical Properties: Corrosion resistance, chemical stability.
• Cost and Availability: Economic factors play a significant role.
• Environmental and Sustainability Factors: Impact on the environment and recyclability.
➢Each category of material has its unique set of characteristics that make it suitable for particular
engineering applications. The choice of material depends on the required properties for the
intended use. 3
1.2.5. Ductile materials
✓ Characterized by their ability to yield at normal temperature.
✓ As the material is subjected to an increasing load, its length is increases linearly with the
load with very slow rate.
✓ Thus, the initial portion of the stress-strain diagram will be straight line with a steep
slope.
✓ After a critical values of as been reached the material undergoes a large deformation with
a relatively small increase in the applied load.
✓ After a certain maximum value of the load has been reached the diameter of a portion
of the material begins to decrease because of local instability (known as Necking).
❖ After necking has been seen somewhat lower loads are sufficient to keep the material
elongate further until it finally breaks.
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1.2.5. Ductile materials (cont’d…)
❖ The stress at which the yield is indicated is called yield strength of the material.
❖ The stress corresponding to the maximum load applied to the material is known as the ultimate strength.
❖ The stress corresponding to the rupture (faller) is called the breaking strength.
Point A:- limit of proportionality (elastic limit), stress is
≈ to the strain.
Point B:- upper yield point, yielding starts.
Point c:- lower yield point, the load required to maintain
the yield.
Point D:- ultimate stress, the maximum stress that the
material can be resist.
Point E:- breaking (failure point), the stress at which the
material fails.
❖The same result can be developed while applying compressive
load, but for ductile material under compressive test their is no
Stress strain diagram for structural steel neck formation 22
➢ The upper yield point is the stress at which a material
begins to deform plastically, while the lower yield point is
the stress at which the material maintains plastic.
➢ Plastic deformation is when a material is permanently
distorted after being subjected to stresses that exceed its
yield strength. This can cause the material to elongate,
compress, buckle, bend, or twist.
➢ Plastic deformation occurs when a material is stressed
beyond its elastic limit.
➢ The material will not return to its original state when the
stress is removed, and some permanent deformation will
set in. 23
1.2.6. Brittle materials
➢In these material, there is no appreciable change in rate of strain. There is no yield point and no
necking takes place. Ultimate point and breaking point are one and at the same. The strain at
failure is very small.
➢For most brittle material ultimate compressive stress in compression is Mach longer than in
tension.
Stress strain diagram for brittle material
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1.3. Ultimate and Allowable Stress: Factor of Safety
Ultimate load:. It is the largest applied load to the material ether break or begins to carry less loads,
and also the stress is called ultimate stress.
• Yield Stress (σy): The stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Beyond this,
permanent deformation occurs.
• Ultimate Stress (σu): The maximum stress a material can endure before failure (fracture).
𝑼𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷
Ultimate Stress = , 𝝈u =
𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔−𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝑨
In practice it is not possible to design a mechanical component or structural component permitting
stressing up to ultimate stress for the following reason.
1. Reliability of material may not be 100%. there may be small spots of flaws (material defects)
2. The resulting deformation may obstruct the functional performance of the component (long-
term durability ) 25
3. The load taken by designer are only estimated loads. occasionally there can be overloading,
unexpected impact and temperature loadings may act in the life span of the member.
4. There are certain ideal conditions assumed in the analysis (like boundary conditions). Actually
ideal conditions will not be available and, therefore, the calculated stress will not be 100% real
stresses.
Allowable stresses
➢ Allowable stresses refer to the maximum stresses that a material or structural component can safely
withstand under specific conditions without failure.
➢ These limits are determined based on the material's mechanical properties, its application, safety
factors, and codes or standards relevant to the engineering field (e.g., civil, mechanical, aerospace).
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(cont’d…)
Hence, the maximum stress to which any member is designed is much less than the ultimate stress,
and this stress is called allowable stress. The ratio of ultimate stress to working stress is called factor
of safety. 𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒖
factor of safety = , 𝑛=
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒍𝒍
𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
factor of safety for brittle material =
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒅 𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒕( 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔) 𝝈𝒚 𝝈𝒚
factor of safety 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 ,= 𝝈𝒍𝒍 =
𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝝈𝒍𝒍 𝒏
Allowable load; it is the maximum load that a structural member or machine component will be
allowed to carry under a normal conditions of utilization in considerably smaller than the ultimate
𝑷 𝝈𝒖 𝒏∗𝑷
load. 𝝈𝒍𝒍 = = , …….𝑨 =
𝑨 𝒏 𝝈𝒚
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Types of Allowable Stresses
1. Allowable Tensile Stress:
o The maximum tensile (pulling) stress a material can endure before failure. It is often calculated by dividing
the yield strength of the material by a factor of safety.
2. Allowable Compressive Stress:
o The maximum compressive (pushing or squeezing) stress a material can handle before it buckles or fails.
This is important in designing columns and other components subjected to compressive forces.
3. Allowable Shear Stress:
o The maximum stress a material can take in a shear mode (parallel forces acting in opposite directions) before
it fails or deforms. It’s particularly relevant in fasteners like bolts, pins, and rivets.
4. Allowable Bearing Stress:
o The maximum stress a material can withstand at points of contact or surface loading, such as where bolts or
pins bear on the surface of another material.
5. Allowable Bending Stress:
o The maximum stress a component can handle while bending, typically important in beams, shafts, and other
components subjected to flexural loads. 28
Safety Factor
• A safety factor (also called the factor of safety ) is a measure of how much stronger a system,
structure, or component is compared to what it needs to be for its intended purpose.
• It is used in engineering to account for uncertainties in material properties, design assumptions,
load predictions, and potential environmental conditions.
• It applied to reduce the risk of failure.
Typical Safety Factors
• Civil Engineering Structures (Bridges, Buildings): 2.0 to 3.0
• Mechanical Engineering (Machinery, Vehicles): 1.5 to 2.5
• Aerospace Industry: 1.2 to 1.5 (due to the need to minimize weight but ensure safety)
• Pressure Vessels (Boilers, Pipelines): 3.0 to 4.0
• Consumer Products: 1.5 to 2.0
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Importance of Safety Factors
1. Uncertainties in Design: Safety factors account for uncertainties in material properties (e.g.,
variations in strength), load estimations, and environmental conditions that could affect
performance.
2. Manufacturing Tolerances: Not every material or component produced will be perfect; safety
factors accommodate manufacturing variations and tolerances.
3. Wear and Aging: Over time, materials degrade or wear out. a safety factor ensures the
structure remains functional for a certain period despite this deterioration.
4. Unpredictable Loads: In many applications, such as bridges or cranes, the actual loads
encountered during use may exceed initial predictions. A higher safety factor accounts for these
unpredictable conditions.
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1.4. Mechanical Models
❖ Mechanical models are representations of mechanical systems used to analyze, predict, and
understand their behavior under various conditions, such as loads, forces, and motions.
❖ These models can be physical or mathematical and are essential tools for engineers when
designing and optimizing machines or structures.
❖ The primary goal of mechanical models is to simulate real-world behavior in a controlled
and simplified way, allowing for better insights and decision-making during the design
process.
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Types of Mechanical Models:
1. Static Models:
o These models deal with forces in equilibrium, meaning no motion is involved. They are used
to determine the stress, strain, and deformation in components under load.
o Example: Calculating the stress in a beam subjected to a static load using statics equations
(e.g., equilibrium of forces and moments).
2. Dynamic Models:
o Dynamic models analyze systems in motion, taking into account velocity, acceleration, and
forces due to inertia.
o Example: Modeling the vibrations of a machine or the motion of a vehicle using Newton's
laws of motion.
3. Kinematic Models:
o Kinematic models focus on the motion of components without considering forces. These
models are used to design and analyze the geometry of mechanisms and linkages.
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4. Finite Element Models (FEM):
o A more advanced model that uses numerical methods to predict the behavior of complex systems
under various loads. FEM divides a structure into small elements and analyzes their behavior.
o Example: Stress analysis of an engine block under thermal and mechanical loads using Finite
Element Analysis (FEA).
5. Control System Models:
o These models are used to simulate and analyze feedback systems that control the motion of
machines.
o Example: A model of an automatic control system for a robotic arm, using transfer functions or
state-space models.
6. Thermodynamic Models:
o These models analyze the thermal behavior of systems, including heat transfer, fluid flow, and energy
conversion processes.
o Example: Modeling the performance of a heat engine or a refrigeration cycle using
thermodynamics equations.
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Importance of Mechanical Models
1. Design Optimization:
o Mechanical models help engineers analyze and optimize the performance of machines, ensuring
they operate efficiently and safely.
2. Safety and Reliability:
o By understanding the behavior of machine elements and modeling systems accurately, engineers
can design machinery that is reliable and safe to operate.
3. Cost Efficiency:
o Proper selection and design of machine elements ensure that machinery operates with minimal
wear and tear, reducing maintenance costs.
4. Energy Efficiency:
o Well-designed components such as bearings and gears minimize energy losses due to friction,
improving the overall efficiency of machines.
• In summary, mechanical models provide engineers with the tools to predict and analyze the
behavior of systems 34
1.5. Machine elements
➢ Machine elements are the individual components that make up mechanical systems and
machines.
➢ It is the basic mechanical parts and features used as the building blocks of most machines.
➢ It is an elementary component of a machine.
➢ They serve various purposes such as transmitting motion, force, or energy, and supporting
mechanical loads.
➢ These components are designed to withstand different types of stresses and forces, and their
correct selection and arrangement are crucial for the successful operation of any mechanical
system
3
(cont’d…)
➢ These elements consist of three basic types:
i. Structural components such as frame members, bearings, axles, splines, fasteners, seals etc.
ii. Mechanisms that control movement in various ways (gear trains, belt or chain
drives, linkages, cam and follower systems, including brakes and clutches, and,
iii. Control components such as buttons, switches, indicators, sensors, actuators and computer
controllers.
➢ Most are standardized to common sizes, but customs are also common for specialized
applications.
➢ Shape, texture and colour not considered to be a M/E, which, provide a styling and operational
interface between the mechanical components of a machine and its users.
3
Key Functions of Machine Elements
1. Power Transmission: Elements like gears, belts, chains, shafts, and couplings transmit power
between different parts of a machine.
2. Motion Control: Elements like bearings, brakes, cams, and clutches control or regulate motion
within a system.
3. Force Application: Springs, hydraulic components, and actuators apply or resist forces within a
system.
4. Structural Support: Shafts, bearings, and fasteners provide mechanical support, ensuring that
components are properly aligned and can carry loads.
5. Energy Storage: Flywheels and springs are used to store and release mechanical energy as needed.
6. Sealing and Protection: Seals, gaskets, and protective covers prevent contamination, leakage, and
damage to sensitive parts of a machine.
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(cont’d…)
➢ All of the simple machines may be described as machine elements, and many machine elements
incorporate concepts of one or more simple machines. For example, a leads crew incorporates
a screw thread, which is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder.
➢ Many mechanical design, invention, and engineering tasks involve a knowledge of various machine
elements and an intelligent and creative combining of these elements into a component or
assembly that fills a need design, invention.
➢ In summary, machine elements are essential components that allow mechanical systems to
function effectively. Whether they are transmitting power, supporting loads, or controlling motion,
the correct selection and design of these elements are critical to the successful operation of any
machine or mechanical system.
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Examples of Machine element
bearing
Fastener
gear trains chain drives 39
End of Chapter 1
Next Lecture
Chapter 2:
Failure Prevention and Stress concentration