CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Electricity has been around for centuries, evolving and changing more and more
each day. Without electricity the world would be a very different place.
The public relies on electricity to be readily available and to perform basic
functions.
Electricity use has increased every year since 1949 except for 1974 and 1992 [1].
Not only has electricity usage been rapidly increasing, energy prices are rising
and energy availability is diminishing [2].With this continual growth in electricity
use as well as an increasing price, new methods of producing electricity are
constantly being developed.
The turn to alternative energies to produce electricity dates all the way back to
the 18th century but has gained momentum recently.
Alternative or renewable energy comes from sources that replenish themselves,
such as the sun, rivers, wind, and ocean waves and tides [1]. Solar powered
systems are becoming more prevalent. Solar energy is one of the most important
renewable energy sources that has been gaining increased attention in recent years
[3]. Solar panels absorb the sunlight to create electricity.
Solar energy is clean and free of emissions, which is great for the environment,
as it does not produce pollutants or by-products harmful to nature [3].
The modern form of the solar cell was invented in 1954 at Bell Telephone
Laboratories. Today, PV is one of the fastest growing renewable energy
technologies and it is expected that it will play a major role in the future global
electricity generation mix.
PV technology offers a number of significant benefits, including:
 Solar power is a renewable resource that is available everywhere in the
world.
 Solar PV technologies are small and highly modular and can be used
virtually anywhere, unlike many other electricity generation technologies.

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  Unlike conventional power plants using coal, nuclear, oil and gas; solar PV
has no fuel costs and relatively low operation and maintenance (O&M)
costs. PV can therefore offer a price hedge against volatile fossil fuel
prices.
 PV, although variable, has a high coincidence with peak electricity demand
driven by cooling in summer and year round in hot countries.
A PV system consists of PV cells that are grouped together to form a PV module,
and the auxiliary components (i.e. balance of system - BOS), including the
inverter, controls, etc.
There are a wide range of PV cell technologies on the market today, using
different types of materials, and an even larger number will be available in the
future.
PV cell technologies are usually classified into three generations, depending on
the basic material used and the level of commercial maturity:
 First-generation PV systems (fully commercial) use the wafer-based
crystalline silicon (c-Si) technology, either single crystalline (Sc-Si) or
multi-crystalline (mc-Si).
 Second-generation PV systems (early market deployment) are based on
thin-film PV technologies and generally include three main families: 1)
amorphous (a-Si) and micromorph silicon (a-Si/µc-Si); 2) Cadmium-
Telluride (CdTe); and 3) Copper Indium-Selenide (CIS) and Copper-
Indium Gallium-Diselenide (CIGS).
 Third-generation PV systems include technologies, such as concentrating
PV (CPV) and organic PV cells that are still under demonstration or have
not yet been widely commercialised, as well as novel concepts under
development.

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1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT
In a country where the amount of energy generated and distributed by the power
industries is not sufficient to meet the demand of its populace, the need to resort
to an alternative source of energy has arose.
Several alternative sources such as generator sets, solar cells, nuclear power
plants, etc. have been turned to.
However, the rising cost of fossil fuel and the dangers of using nuclear system,
among others has led to the discovery of an efficient, noiseless and economic
system called the solar system.
The solar system today solves the problem of epileptic power supply and cut
down on the cost of fossil fuel for power generators.

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objectives for carrying out this study is to know how to design and
install a solar PV system. However some other objectives for this study include
the following:
 To know the materials required for a P.V installation.
 To know how the installation process is carried out.
 To know the functions of the various materials used in the installation
process.
 To design and install a well functional P.V system for any building.
 To facilitate the installation of a safe systems at a minimum cost.
 The need for conservation of fossil fuel resources such as gas, oil, coal, etc.
 To supply electrical energy in remote areas.
 The need for reducing atmospheric and thermal pollution having serious
detrimental effect on the environment.

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1.3 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY

Solar PV technologies have been receiving world-wide recognition as an

alternative source of fuel. The pollution to the environment caused by fossil fuel,
has led to the research into other sources of fuel that causes no harm to the
environment.

Several studies and conference have been held on the matter as it is one of great
concern and many developed countries have already started the commercial use
of Solar PV system as a major source of their electricity.

The importance for this study is to know the reason why solar system should be
adopted by all and its advantages over other sources of fuel.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE REPORT

The scope of this work is limited to the design and installation of a solar system
for any given residential house.
It goes on to talk about the installation process for a given area, talks about the
functions of the various materials used during the manufacturing process.
Finally, it present a case for the present state of power situation in the country and
how the solar P.V system can be a viable or veritable alternatives to the other
sources of power generation.

1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY

In chapter one, the evolution of electricity from the use of fossil fuel to the use of
renewable energy sources was talked about followed by the benefits of solar PV
technologies.

The generations of solar PV Technologies and the explanation of the components

used in a solar system were discussed in chapter two.

Chapter three gave a detailed elaboration on the design and installation of a PV

system
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Chapter four concluded the work by making a case for the reason why the system
is necessary for Nigeria.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 OVERVIEW

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the sun that control the earth’s
climate and weather condition. It is a renewable source of energy and originates
with the thermonuclear process that transfers about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen
to helium per second. This action produces lots of heat and electromagnetic
radiation [4]. The produced heat is what the sun radiates out in all direction.

Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials. Semiconductors

are materials that becomes electrically conductive when supplied with heat or
light but behaves as an insulator at low temperature.

Conversion of light energy into electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called

photovoltaic effect.

When a semiconductor material is exposed to light, some of the photons of the

light rays are absorbed by the semiconductor crystal which causes excitation of
the electrons in the crystal, thus causing some of the electron to break free
depending on the amount of absorbed photon. This is the basic reason of
producing electricity due to photovoltaic effect.

Photovoltaic cell or Solar cell is the basic unit of the system where photovoltaic
effect is utilized to produce electricity from light energy.

Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material for constructing

photovoltaic cell. The silicon atom has four valence electrons. In a solid crystal,
each silicon atom shares each of its four valence electrons with another nearest
silicon atom, hence creating a covalent bond between them.

In a solar cell, a thin semiconductor wafer is specially treated to form an electric

field, positive on one side and negative on the other.

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When light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the
atoms in the semiconductor material. If an external circuit is connected to the
positive and negative side, the electrons can be captured in the form of an electric
current-- that is electricity. This electricity can then be used to power a load such
as a light or a fan.

2.2 REVIEW OF SOLAR PV GENERATION

Photovoltaic cells are usually made up of semiconductor materials usually silicon.

This silicon semiconductor is responsible for the conversion of the solar energy
into electricity. Silicon can be classified into three broad generations which will
be discussed below:

2.2.1 FIRST-GENERATION PV TECHNOLOGIES: CRYSTALLINE

SILICON CELLS
Silicon is one of the most abundant elements in the earth‘s crust. It is a
semiconductor material suitable for PV applications, with energy band gap of
1.1eV.
Crystalline silicon is the material most commonly used in the PV industry, and
wafer-based c-Si PV cells and modules dominate the current market. This is a
mature technology that utilises the accumulated knowledge base developed
within the electronic industry.

Crystalline silicon cells are classified into three main types depending on how the
Si wafers are made. They are:
 Monocrystalline (Mono c-Si) sometimes also called single crystalline (sc-
Si);
 Polycrystalline (Poly c-Si), sometimes referred to as multi-crystalline (mc-
Si); and
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  EFG ribbon silicon and silicon sheet-defined film growth (EFG ribbon-
sheet c-Si).
Commercial production of c-Si modules began in 1963 when Sharp Corporation
of Japan started producing commercial PV modules and installed a 242 Watt (W)
PV module on a lighthouse, the world’s largest commercial PV installation at the
time [5]. Crystalline silicon technologies accounted for about 87% of global PV
sales in 2010 [6]. The efficiency of crystalline silicon modules ranges from 14%
to 19%.

2.2.2 SECOND-GENERATION PV TECHNOLOGIES: THIN-FILM

SOLAR CELLS
After more than 20 years of research and development, thin-film solar cells are
beginning to be deployed in significant quantities. Thin-film solar cells could
potentially provide lower cost electricity than c-Si wafer-based solar cells.
However, this isn’t certain, as lower capital costs, due to lower production and
materials costs, are offset to some extent by lower efficiencies and very low c-Si
module costs make the economics even more challenging. Thin-film solar cells
are comprised of successive thin layers, just 1 to 4 µm thick, of solar cells
deposited onto a large, inexpensive substrate such as glass, polymer, or metal.
As a consequence, they require a lot less semiconductor material to manufacture
in order to absorb the same amount of sunlight (up to 99% less material than
crystalline solar cells).
In addition, thin films can be packaged into flexible and lightweight structures,
which can be easily integrated into building components (building-integrated PV,
BIPV).
The three primary types of thin-film solar cells that have been commercially
developed are:
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si and a-Si/µc-Si);
 Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te); and

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  Copper-Indium-Selenide (CIS) and Copper Indium-Gallium-Diselenide
(CIGS).

2.2.3 THIRD-GENERATION PV TECHNOLOGIES

Third-generation PV technologies are at the pre-commercial stage and vary from
Technologies under demonstration (e.g. multi-junction concentrating PV) to
novel concepts still in need of basic R&D (e.g. quantum-structured PV cells).
Some third-generation PV technologies are beginning to be commercialised, but
it remains to be seen how successful they will be in taking market share from
existing technologies.
There are four types of third-generation PV technologies:
 Concentrating PV (CPV);
 Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC);
 Organic solar cells; and
 Novel and emerging solar cell concepts.

2.3 POWER INVERTERS

This are electrical/ electronic devices that converts electrical power from DC
form to AC form. The mode of its operation maybe electronically (use of a diode
and an electronic transformer) or mechanically (use of switches).

The typical application is to convert battery voltage or DC from a solar panel into
conventional household AC voltage allowing you to use electronic devices when
an AC power is not available.

An inverter can produce a square wave, modified sine wave, pulsed sine wave,
pulse width modulated wave (PWM) or sine wave depending on its circuit design.

The modified square wave also known as the modified sine wave inverter
produces square waves with some dead spots between positive and negative half-
cycles at the output [7].
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 Fig 2.1. types of inverter outputs

2.4 CHARGE CONTROLLERS

This is a device used to prevent batteries from overcharging, over discharging

and used as a regulator to reduce (buck) the voltage if it is higher than the desired
level and increase (boost) the voltage if it is lower than the desired level.

Most charge controller units have what is known as a 3 stage charge cycle that
goes like this:

1. BULK: During the bulk phase of the charge cycle, the voltage gradually
rises to the bulk level (usually 14.4 to 14.6 volts) while the batteries draws
maximum current. When bulk level voltage is reached, the absorption stage
begins.

2. ABSORPTION: During this phase, the voltage is maintained at bulk

voltage level for a specified time (usually an hour) while the current gradually
tapers off as the batteries charge up.

3. FLOAT: After the absorption time passes, the voltage is lowered to float
level (usually 13.4 to 13.7volts) and the batteries draw a small maintenance
current until the next cycle.

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The batteries used in stand-alone system are in the risk of being overcharged and
effectively spoilt due to the overcharging. It is the function of the charge
controllers to prevent the batteries from spoiling from over charging or over
discharging.

Fig 2.2 charge controller with connections to the module and the batteries.

2.5 BATTERIES

A battery is an electrochemical cell that produce DC from an electrochemical

reaction to power a given load.

A battery is made up of several cells. A cell is the working chemical unit inside
the battery.

A cell has three main parts: a positive electrode (terminal), a negative electrode
and a liquid or solid separating them called the electrolyte.

When a battery is connected to an electric circuit, a chemical reaction takes place

in the electrolyte causing ions to flow through it in one direction while the
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electrons flow through the outer circuit in the other direction. This movement of
electric charge makes an electric current to flow through the cell and through the
circuit it is connected to.

2.6 SOLAR PANELS

Solar panels are arrays of photocells made from semiconducting materials such
as: crystalline silicon or cadmium telluride. It is this semiconducting materials
that does the actual conversion.

The conversion is done by a process called photovoltaic effect as already

explained previously.

The solar panels comes in different sizes each with an output within the range of
100 to 365Watts. Its efficiency depends on the size as a more efficient panel with
a similar rating with a lower efficient panels will have a smaller size on
comparison. [8].

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 CHAPTER THREE

DESIGNING AND INSTALLATION OF THE SYSTEM

The calculation, sizing and the mounting are fundamental phases in the design of
a solar system.

A Solar PV system could be connected to the grid or a stand-alone system.

A stand-alone system operates off grid that is it isn’t connected to the electricity
distribution company. It makes use of batteries to supply power to the load when
the amount of solar irradiation is low.

In a grid connected system, the utility supplies electricity when the solar PV
system is not producing enough power. However when the system produces
excess power, the utility purchases the excess through a process called net-
metering [9].

To evaluate whether a solar electric system will be suitable, the following should
be considered:

 Is there a clear and unobstructed access to sunlight for most of the day,
throughout the year?
 Is there a large area or a roof capable of supporting the system?
 Is the area large enough to supply the required amount of electricity
needed?
 Is the amount estimated worth the project?

With an adequate answers to the above questions, one can then decide to embark
in the project.

3.1 SOLAR PV SYSTEM DESIGN STEPS

There are several steps in the design of a PV system which can be summarized
into five steps as discussed below:

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3.1.1 DETERMINATION OF POWER CONSUMPTION DEMAND

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power and
energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV system.
This is done as show below:

 Calculating the total watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
 Calculating the total watt-hour per day needed from the PV modules by
multiplying the total appliances watt-hour per day by 1.3 (to account for
the energy lost in the system).

3.1.2 SIZING OF THE PV MODULES

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To size the
PV module, the total peak watt rating is needed. The peak watt produced depends
on the size of the PV module and the climatic condition of the area.

To size the PV module, we calculate the following:

 Calculate the total watt peak (Wp) rating needed for the PV module by
dividing the total watt-hour (Wh) per day needed from the PV modules by
the panel generation factor, to get the total watt peak rating needed for the
PV panels to operate the appliance. The panel generation factor differ from
country to country.
 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system by dividing the total watt
peak rating needed for the PV module by the rated output watt peak of a
PV module available to you.

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3.1.3 INVERTER SIZING

An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input
rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliance. The
inverter must have the same nominal voltage as the battery.

For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total
amount of watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-
30% bigger than the total watt of the appliance. In case the appliance is a motor
or a compressor, the inverter size should be a minimum of 3 times the capacity of
those appliance to handle surge current during start-up [10].

For a grid tied system, the input rating of the inverter should be same as PV array
rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.

3.1.4 BATTERY SIZING

The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle battery.
Deep cycle battery is specifically designed to be discharged and recharged daily
for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient energy to operate
the appliances at night and cloudy days.

To find out the size of the battery, we calculate as follows:

 Calculate the total watt-hour per day used by the appliance.

 Divide the value obtained above by 0.85 to account for the battery losses.
 Divide the value obtained above by 0.6 for the depth of discharge.
 Divide the value obtained above by the nominal battery voltage.
 Multiply the result gotten above with the days of autonomy (the number of
days that you need the system to operate when there is no power produced
by the PV panel) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of the battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hour per day by the appliance x Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

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3.1.5 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER SIZING
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is
to take the short circuit current of the PV array and multiply it by 1.3.
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3.

3.2 MOUNTING OPTION

There are several ways to install a PV array at a residence. Most PV systems
produce 5-to-10 Watts per square foot of array area. This is based on a variety of
different technologies and the varying efficiency of different PV products. A
typical 2kW PV system will need 200-400 square feet of unobstructed area to site
the system [9].
Considerations should also be given for access to the system. This access space
can add up to 20% of needed area to the mounting area required.

3.2.1 ROOF MOUNT

Often the most convenient and appropriate place to put the PV array is on the roof
of the building. The PV array may be mounted above and parallel to the roof
surface with a standoff of several inches for cooling purposes. Sometimes, such
as with flat roofs, a separate structure with a more optimal tilt angle is mounted
on the roof.

Proper roof mounting can be labour intensive. Particular attention must be paid
to the roof structure and the weather sealing of roof penetrations. It is typical to
have one support bracket for every 100 Watts of PV modules. For new
construction, support brackets are usually mounted after the roof decking is
applied and before the roofing materials is installed. The crew in charge of laying
out the array mounting system normally installs the brackets. The roofing
contractor can then flash around the brackets as they install the roof. A simple

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installation detail and a sample of the support bracket is often all that is needed
for a roofing contractor to estimate the flashing cost.

Fig 3.1 : Roof Mounted PV System

3.2.2 SHADE STRUCTURE

An alternative to roof mounting is to mount the system as a shade structure. A
shade structure may be a patio cover or deck shade trellis where the PV array
becomes the shade. These shade systems can support small to large PV systems.

The construction cost with a PV system is a little different than for a standard
patio cover, especially if the PV array is acts as part or the entire shade roof. If
the PV array is mounted at a steeper angle than a typical shade structure,
additional structural enhancements may be necessary to handle the additional
wind loads. The weight of the PV array is 3-to-5 lbs. /ft. 2, which is well within
structural limits of most shade support structures. The avoided cost of installing
roof brackets and the associated labour could be counted toward the cost of a fully
constructed patio cover. The overall cost of this option will likely be higher than
roof mounting, but the value of the shade often offsets the additional costs [9].

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 Fig 3.2: shade structured PV mounted system.

3.2.3 BUILDING INTEGRATED PV ARRAY (BIPV)

Another type of system displaces some of the conventional roofing product with
building integrated PV modules. Commercially available products currently
include roof slates (similar to masonry roofing) and standing seam metal roofing
products. Special attention must be paid to ensure that these products are installed
properly and carry the necessary fire ratings [9].

Fig 3.3: building integrated installation

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3.3 INSTALLATION OF THE PV SYSTEM

Before the installation work is carried out, a little mathematics should be done to
estimate the amount of panels that can be fitted in to a given roof area.

With the idea of the amount of modules required, the installation process can
begin.

1 The rafters are located on the roof. A rafter is one of the sloping pieces
of wood, trusses or beam that support a roof.

Fig 3.4: a typical rafter

2 The mount are secured to the rafter. The length of the bolts used to
secure the mount to the rafter should be sufficient enough to prevent the
unwinding of the bolts from their position. i.e it should factor in the
maximum allowable withdrawal.
3 After the mounts has been secured, the rails are then connected to the
mounts using an L-foot bracket. The rails can be spliced or joined
together to get the required length and any excess could be cut using a
hacksaw. The rails are usually mounted in rows.

Fig: 3.5 a typical mount, L-foot bracket and rail.

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 4 Next a short grounding wire are connected from one rail to the next.
This ground wire will eventually be hooked up to the junction box or
combiner for the array.
5 Mid clamps that holds the modules onto the rails should be inserted
6 The modules are then installed on the rails, held with the mid clamp and
connected to each other along the row.
7 Next is to mount the inverter, junction box and other electrical
components. The junction box should be connected close to the array,
while the inverter and other components are mounted on the ground
within proximity of the main panel.
8 The system is then wired and all electrical connections are made.
9 Finally, testing and inspection of the system is made and the system is
commissioned [11].

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 CHAPTER 4

CONCLUSION

The relationship between energy and a nation’s economy has an effect in the
growth of any nation’s economy. Nigeria currently generates about 2000MW to
about 4000MW of electricity for its growing population of about 170 million
people, which is grossly inadequate. This makes electricity supply unreliable
thereby frustrating industries and stagnating economic activities and production.

Building power stations and distribution of electricity supply, usually require

large capitals from the government and involves major use of fossil fuel. Fossil
fuel has greatly contributed to atmospheric pollution and increase in greenhouse
effect resulting in global warming.

However, solar energy as a renewable energy source is unlimited and has no

crippling effect in terms of pollution, global warming or importation cost of coal,
oil or gas.

Photovoltaic systems can cover the basic electricity needs at the domestic and
commercial level. They are renewable, environmental friendly and can be
incorporated into the national grid.

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REFERENCE

[1] Berinstein, Paula. 2001. “Alternative Energy: Facts, Statistics, and

Issues.” Connecticut: Oryx press, pp. 1-190.

[2] Forster, Robert, Majid Ghassemi, and Alma Cota. 2010. “Solar Energy:
Renewable Energy and the Environment.” Florida: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, pp.233-248

[3] Khaligh, Alireza, and Omer C. Onsr. 2010. “Energy Harvesting: Solar,
Wind, and Ocean Energy conversion system.” Florida: CRC press, Taylor &
Francis Group, pp. 1-5.

[4] S. Ogunyiola “Solar Energy.” Internet:

[Link] Aug. 15, 2011 [Jun. 20,
2016].

[5] M.A Green. ”Clean Energy from Photovoltaics.” New Jersey: World
Scientific Publishing Co., Hackensack.
[6] S. Schott (2011) “Crystalline Silicon Technology.” Internet:
[Link]
e/.
[7] “Power Inverter.” Internet: [Link]
Aug. 8, 2014 [Jun. 14, 2016].

[8] “Solar Panel.” Internet: [Link] Aug.

8, 2014 [Jun. 14, 2016].

[9] Endecon Engineering and Regional Economic Research inc. (2001, Jun
14). “A Guide to Photovoltaic (PV) System Design and Installation.” (1st edition).
[On-line]. Available: [Link]/reports/2001-09-04. [Jun. 14, 2016]

[10] “How to Design Solar PV System.” Internet:

[Link] Jun. 12,
2016.
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[11] G. Reysa. “Designing and Installing Your Own Grid- Tied PV System.”
Internet: [Link]/Projects/PV/EnphasePV/[Link]. Nov. 22,
2009 [Jun. 14, 2016].

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