Computer Network Models

 A communication subsystem is a complex piece of Hardware and software.

 Early attempts for implementing the software for such subsystems were
based on a single, complex, unstructured program with many interacting
components.
 The resultant software was very difficult to test and modify. To overcome
such problem, the ISO has developed a layered approach.
 In a layered approach, networking concept is divided into several layers,
and each layer is assigned a particular task. Therefore, we can say that
networking tasks depend upon the layers.
Layered Architecture:

o The main aim of the layered architecture is to divide the design into small
pieces.
o Each lower layer adds its services to the higher layer to provide a full set of
services to manage communications and run the applications.
o It provides modularity and clear interfaces, i.e., provides interaction between
subsystems.
o It ensures the independence between layers by providing the services from
lower to higher layer without defining how the services are implemented.
Therefore, any modification in a layer will not affect the other layers.
o The number of layers, functions, contents of each layer will vary from
network to network.
o However, the purpose of each layer is to provide the service from lower to a
higher layer and hiding the details from the layers of how the services are
implemented.
o The basic elements of layered architecture are services, protocols, and
interfaces.
o Service: It is a set of actions that a layer provides to the higher layer.
o Protocol: It defines a set of rules that a layer uses to exchange the
information with peer entity. These rules mainly concern about both
the contents and order of the messages used.
o Interface: It is a way through which the message is transferred from
one layer to another layer.
o In a layer n architecture, layer n on one machine will have a communication
with the layer n on another machine and the rules used in a conversation are
known as a layer-n protocol.
OSI Model:

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model

that describes how information from a software application in
one computer moves through a physical medium to the software
application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular
network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an
architectural model for the inter-computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable
tasks. Each layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be
performed independently.

7 Layers of OSI Model:

There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven
layers are given below:

1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer

Data Flow In OSI Model

When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7

layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s
end and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:

 Application Layer: Applications create the data.

 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer: Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically
  Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination
correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.

Let’s look at it with an Example:

A sends an e-mail to his friend B
Step 1: A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes his
email to send. (This happens in Layer 7: Application layer)
Step 2: Mail application prepares for data transmission like encrypting data and
formatting it for transmission. (This happens in Layer 6: Presentation Layer)
Step 3: There is a connection established between the sender and receiver on the
internet. (This happens in Layer 5: Session Layer)
Step 4: Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds sequence number and
error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the information. (This
happens in Layer 4: Transport Layer)
Step 5: Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best route for transfer.
(This happens in Layer 3: Network Layer)
Step 6: Data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC address is added
for local devices and then it checks for error using error detection. (This happens
in Layer 2: Data Link Layer)
Step 7: Lastly Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical signals
over a physical network medium like Ethernet cable or Wi-Fi.

 After the email reaches the receiver i.e. B, the process will reverse
and decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on
B’s email client.
1) Physical layer:
 The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer.
 It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices.
 The physical layer contains information in the form of bits.
 It is responsible for transmitting individual bits from one node to the next.
 When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.
 Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.

 o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one node to
another node.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
o Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two
connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are simplex, half-duplex
and full-duplex.
o Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number
of bits sent per second.

Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2

 The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
 The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
 When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to
the Host using its MAC address.

 The Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

 Logical Link Control (LLC)

 Media Access Control (MAC)

 The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending
on the frame size of the NIC (Network Interface Card).
 DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
 The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol).
Functions of the Data Link Layer

 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted
thus; flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an
acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.

Network Layer – Layer 3

 The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located
in different networks.
 It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available.
 The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
 Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

 Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.

Functions of the Network Layer

 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.

 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the network layer
defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
Transport Layer – Layer 4:

 The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from
the network layer.
 The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the end-
to-end delivery of the complete message.
 The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
 At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper
layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error control to ensure
proper data transmission.
 It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the
segmented data to the Network Layer.
 At the receiver’s side: Transport Layer reads the port number from its header and
forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also performs
sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
 Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and
communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.

 The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.

 Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP

Functions of the Transport Layer

 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.

 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented service

and connectionless service
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
  Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link.

Services Provided by Transport Layer

 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service : It is a three-phase process that includes:

 Connection Establishment
 Data Transfer
 Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the source
after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and secure.

2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type of
transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows for
much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable than
connectionless Service.

Session Layer – Layer 5:

 This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

and authentication, and also ensures security.

 All the below 3 layers (including Session Layer) are integrated as a single layer in
the TCP/IP model as the “Application Layer”.

 Implementation of these 3 layers is done by the network application itself. These are
also known as Upper Layers or Software Layers.

 Device or Protocol Use: NetBIOS, PPTP.

Functions of the Session Layer:

 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the two
processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error
so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Example:
 Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in their browser.
 The “Messenger” here acts as the application layer which provides the user with an
interface to create the data.
 This message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is
sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Presentation Layer – Layer 6:

 A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer or Translation layer.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one presentation
format to another format.
 The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the
required format to transmit over the network.

 Device or Protocol Use: JPEG, MPEG, GIF.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:

 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
(Extended binary coded decimal interchange code)
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.
Application Layer – Layer 7:

 At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also
serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for displaying
the received information to the user.
 The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.

 Device or Protocol Use : SMTP

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

.
Functions of the Application Layer:

The main functions of the application layer are given below.

 Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

 File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.

 Mail Services: Provide email service.

 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources

and access for global information about various objects and services.

Advantages of OSI Model

The OSI Model defines the communication of a computing system into 7 different layers. Its
advantages include:
 It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and
troubleshoot.
 It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and
protocols.
 Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model.
 It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
Disadvantages of OSI Model:
 Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to
understand for beginners.
 Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the
Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
 Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted by
the industry, which preferred the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.
 Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which
can make the process more time-consuming and less efficient.