Field Methods in Psychology

Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 1 Introduction
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Introduction Purpose of Research

• To discover answers to questions through the
Field Methods in Psychology applicatio of scientific procedures.
• Involve studying human behavior in its natural • To face a challenge.
environment. • To solve a problem.
• Allow researchers to observe and collect data in • To get intellectual knowledge.
real-world settings, providing a more naturalistic • To serve society by increasing standard of living, by
and authentic understanding of psychological showing right path to society in case of social and
phenomena. behavioral science.
Advantages of Field Methods Philosophical Worldviews in Research
Naturalistic • Researchers can observe I’m

behavior as it naturally occurs, Postpositivist

minizing artificiality and • Subscribes to the idea that everything should be
increasing ecological validity. quantified to produce meaningful concrete results.
Real-world • Findings are more likely to be • Example: Satisfaction of students would be
Relevance applicale to real-life situations expressed in percentagein relation to the overall
and populations. numbers.
In-depth • Field methods often allow rich, I’m

Understanding detailed data collection, Constructivist

providing deeper insights into • Believe that experience expressed through words
psychological phenomena. can paint a better picture of a certain phenomena.
Flexibility • Can adapt their methods to • Ex.: Analyzing the satisfaction of students should
unexpected events or consider their verbatim comments and experiences
discoveries, promoting flexibility rather than number.
and creativity.
Cost-effective • Compared to laboratory Transformative
experiments, field research can • Supports the idea that research should be
often be less expensive. conducted to increase quality of life and produce
better societies.
Challenges of Field Methods • Ex.: A researcher conducts research on waste
Lack of Control • Researchers have limited segretation since he believe that the results may
control over variables, making it help in development of valuablr programs and aid
difficult to establish cause-and- in policy-making.
effect relationships.
Pragmatic
Subjectivity • Observations can be influenced
by researcher bias, leading to • Promotes the use of both quantitative and
potential subjectivity in data qualitative data in expressing research findings.
interpretation. • Ex.: A student promotes the percentage of smokers
Time- • Field research can be time- in the campus, as well as the reasons for smoking
consuming intensive, requiring patience in a study.
and perseverance.
The Research Process
Ethical • Researchers must carefully I’m
Considerations consider ethica implications, Conceptualization Phase
such as informed consent and • Identify the topic of study.
privacy.
• Choose a concept that is neither too broad nor too
Data Analysis • Analyzing qualitative data from specific, allowing for flexibility and further
field research can be exploration.
challenging and time-
• Conduct a literature review, which is requierd for
consuming.
quantitative studies but optional for qualitative
Research inquiries.
• After selecting the topic, frame the objectives or
• Came from french word “Cerchier” meaning “to
define the central question to be addressed.
seek or to search”. I’m
• An attempt to solve or gain a solution to a problem. Design Phase
• Research is a careful systematized effort of gaining
• Also known as the planning phase.
new knowledge. (Redman & Morry)
• Involves outlining the detailed procedures for data
collection and analysis.
• Researchers must agree on the methods, locations,
and timing for conducting and analyzing the study.

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY | Page 1

Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

The Research Process Kinds and Classifications of Research

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Empirical Phase According to the Levels of Investigation
• When data gathering and collection take place. • Exploratory Research:
• During this phase, researchers are prepared with o Investigates a problem or topic not
the right attitude, behavior, and tools to collect data previously studies to gather preliminary
from the identified sources. information.
• Interviews and focus groups discussions are o Ex.: Exploring the potential market for a
commonly used methods, typically guided by new product.
interview guides or ‘aide memoire’. • Descriptive Research:
o Describes the characteristics of a
Analytical Phase population or phenomenon.
• Often the most challenging part of the research o Ex.: A survey to determine the
process. demographics of a city.
• Researchers prepare and assess the data using • Experimental Research:
various tools and their own understanding, o Manipulates variables to establish cause-
supported by personal beliefs and previous and-effect relationships.
research in the same field. o Ex.: Testing the effectiveness of a new
• During this phase, the study’s results are drug on a group of patients.
interpreted before the final write-up or research
manuscript is created. According to the Type of Analysis
• Analytical Approach:
o Breaks down a problem or subject into
smaller components for in-depth study.
o Ex.: Analyzing the factors contributing to
student dropout rates.
• Holistic Approach:
o Examines the entire system or
phenomenon.
o Ex.: Studying the impact of climate
change on a community.

According to Scope
• Refers to the breadth and depth of the research
Kinds and Classifications of Research study.
I’m • Can range from narrow and focused to broad and
According to Purpose comprehensive.
• Predictive or Prognostic Research:
o Aims to forecast future trends or
According to Choice of Answers to Problems
outcomes based on current data. • Evaluation Research:
o Ex.: Predicting the number of students o Assesses the effectiveness of programs,
who will enroll in a specific course next policies, or interventions.
semester based on previous enrollment o Ex.: Evaluating the impact of a new
data. school curriculum on student
• Directive Research: achievement.
o Seeks to solve specific problems or • Developmental Research:
issues and suggest solutions. o Studies the growth and development of
o Ex.: Research on improving student individuals or groups over time.
retention rates in a university. o Ex.: Research on child development from
• Illuminative Research: birth to adolescence.
o Explores and understands underlying
According to Statistical Content
reasons, opinions, and motivations.
o Ex.: Studying the factors influencing • Quantitative Research:
students’ choice of college major. o Uses numerical data and statistical
analysis to test hypotheses.
According to Goal o Ex.: A survey to measure customer
• Basic or Pure Research: satisfaction.
o Focuses on expanding knowledge and • Non-Quantitative Research:
understanding of fundamental principles o Relies on qualitative data such as
without immediate practical application. observations, interviews, and
o Ex. Research on the nature of human documents.
consciousness. o Ex.: An ethnographic study of a cultural
• Applied Research: group.
o Seeks to solve practival problems and
find solutions to real-world issues.
o Ex.: Developing a new teaching method
to improve student learning outcomes.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Kinds and Classifications of Research

I’m Ego-involvement in Understanding
According to Time Element • Allowing personal beliefs or emotions to interfere
• Historical Research: with objective analysis.
o Investigates past events to understands • Ex.: Rejecting scientific evidence that contradicts a
the present. cherished belief.
o Ex.: Studying the history of a particular
social movement. Mystification
• Descriptive Research: • Attributing unexplained phenomena to supernatural
o Describes the current status of a or mystical forces.
phenomenon. • Explaining a complex event as the work of a higher
o Ex.: Survey to determine the prevalence power without seeking natural explanations.
of smoking among teenagers.
• Experimental Research:
To Err is Human
o Manipulates variables to determine • Recognizing that mistakes are a normal part of the
cause-and-effect relationships in the human condition.
present. • Ex.: Acknowledging the possibility of errors in
o Ex.: Testing the effectiveness of a new research and taking steps to minimize them.
teaching method on student
performance.
Dogmatism
• Tenaciously holding onto beliefs without
Errors in Personal Judgment considering alternative viewpoints.
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• Ex.: Refusing to change one’s mind about a
Tradition controversial topic despite overwhelming evidence
• Relying on established beliefs or customs without to the contrary.
questioning their validity.
• Ex.: Believing that a particular herbal remedy is Types of Quantitative Research
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effective simply because it has been used for
generations without considering scientific evidence.
Descriptive Research
• Describes the characteristics of a population or
Authority phenomenon.
• Accepting information as true because it comes • Often involves surveys, observations, or case
from a respected source without critical evaluation. studies.
• Ex.: Believing that a certain diet is healthy solely
because a famous celebrity endorses it.
Correlational Research
• Investigates the relationship between two or more
Inaccurate Observations variables.
• Making mistakes in observing or recording • Often involves statistical analysis to determine the
information. strength and direction of the relationship.
• Ex.: Incorrectly recording data during an
experiment due to human error.
Causal Comparative Research
• Explores cause-and-effect relationships without full
Overgeneralizing experimental control.
• Drawing broad conclusions from limited • Compares groups based on pre-existing conditions.
observations.
• Ex.: Assuming that all people from a certain country
Quasi-Experimental Research
share the same characteristics based on a few • a
interactions.
Experimental Research
Selective Observation • Establishes cause-and-effect relationships through
• Focusing on information that confirms existing controlled manipulation of variables.
beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. • Involves random assignment of participants to
• Ex.: Only noticing instances that support a experimental and control groups.
stereotype about a particular group.
Types of Qualitative Research
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Made-up Observation
Ethnography
• Creating false information to fill gaps in knowledge.
• To understand a culture or social group in depth.
• Inventing data to support a desired outcome.
• Involves participants, observations, interviews, and
Illogical Reasoning document analysis.
• Using faulty logic to reach conclusions. Phenomenology
• Ex.: Assuming that because two events occurred
• To describe the lived experience of individuals.
together, one cause the other.
• Involves in-depth interviews, focus groups, and
reflective journals.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Types of Qualitative Research Ethical Considerations

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Informed Consent • Participants must be fully
Grounded Theory
informed about the
• To develop a theory based on data collected from research, including its
the field. purpose, procedures, risks,
• Involves constant comparative analysis, and and benefits, before
theoretical sampling. agreeing to participate.
Voluntary • Participants must be free to
Case Study Participation decline or withdraw from
• To examine an individual, group, or event in depth. the study at any time
• Involves interviews, observations, document without penalty.
analysis. Debriefing • Participants should be
informed about the true
Narrative Research nature of the study after it is
• To understand people’s lives through their stories. completed.
• In-depth interviews, life history, autobiography. Confidentiality • Researchers must protect
the privacy of participants
Discourse Analysis and keep their data
• To examine how language is used to construct confidential.
meaning. Deception • Use of deception is
• Text analysis, conversion analysis. generally discouraged but
may be justified under
Content Analysis certain conditions.
• To systematically analyze text, images, or other • If used, participants must
media. be debriefed as soon as
• Coding and categorizing data. possible.
Harm and risk • Researchers must
APA Research Ethics minimize potential harm to
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participants and weigh the
APA Research Ethics risks against the potential
• Has established a comprehensive set of ethical benefits of the study.
guidelines for psychologists, including those Animal Welfare • When using animals in
conducting research. research, psychologists
• Aim to protect the rights and welfare of human and must ensure their humane
animal participants, as well as maintain treatment and minimize
professional integrity. discomfort, pain, and
suffering.
Core Ethical Principles Institutional • Approval is requested from
Beneficence and • Strive to benefit those with Review Board (IRB) an IRB concerning
Non-maleficence whom they work and to do research that involves
no harm. humans or animals.
• They weigh the potential
benefits against the 3R Principle
potential risk of their
research. Replace
Fidelity and • Establish relationships of • Animal is only approved if no suitable alternative
Responsibility trust with those with whom method exists.
they work.
Reduce
Integrity • Psychologists seek to
promote accuracy, honesty, • Only the smallest number of animals necessary for
and truthfulness in science, an experiment may be used.
teaching, and practice.
Refine
Justice • Recognize that fairness
• Housing and experimental conditions are being
and justice entitle all
persons to access to and constantly optimized to subject laboratory animals
benefit from the to as little stress as possible.
contributions of psychology. • Includes always choosing the most animal-friendly
• To equal quality in the experimental method.
processes of psychological
care, education, and Copyright
research.
Copyright
Respect for • Respect the dignity and
People’s Rights worth of all people, and the • Refers to the legal protection afforded to original
and Dignity rights of individuals to research outputs.
privacy, confidentiality, and • Includes anything from research papers, data sets,
self-determination. software, and even research methodologies.

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY | Page 4

Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Key Points Consequences of Plagiarism

Ownership • Researchers typically own
Academic Penalties
the copyright to their
original research work. • Failing grades, academic probation, or expulsion.
Using other’s work • Using copyrighted material Professional Consequences
from other requires
permission or falls under • Loss of job, damage to reputation.
fair use guidelines.
Legal Consequences
Publication • Many publishers require
Agreements • Copyright infringement, lawsuits.
authors to transfer
copyright to them, which How to Avoid Plagiarism
can limit the researcher’s
rights to reuse their work. Cite your sources
Data Management • Researchers must carefully • Use proper citation style.
consider copyright
implications when Paraphrase carefully
managing and sharing
• Put ideas into your own words and cite the original
research data.
source.
Open Access • Some research outputs are
made openly available, but Use quotation marks
this doesn’t necessarily • When directly quoting someone’s words, enclose
mean they are public
them in quotation marks and cite the source.
domain.
Proofread carefully
Challenges and Consideration
• Review your work to ensure proper citation and
Balancing Open • Push for open science
avoid accidental plagiarism.
Science and conflicts with copyright
Copyright protection, leading to APA Citation
complex issues around
data sharing and reuse. American Psychological Association Citation
Data Privacy • Must protect personal • A standardized format for citing sources used in
information and sensitive academic writing, particularly in social and
data while ensuring behavioral science.
research integrity.
• Acknowledging the work of others: giving credit
International • Often involves to the original authors.
Copyright Law collaboration across • Building Credibility: demonstrating the foundation
borders, making
of your research.
understanding different
copyright laws essential. • Avoiding Plagiarism: protecting yourself from
academic misconduct.
Plagiarism
Ways to Cite Sources
Plagiarism In Text Citations • Parenthetical (or Author-
• Act of presenting someone else's work or ideas as date) citations.
your own without giving proper credit. • Place the author’s last
• A serious academic and ethical offense. name and publication year
in parentheses.
Types of Plagiarism Narrative Citations • Incorporate the author’s
name into the sentence and
Direct Plagiarism follow with the publication
• Copying text verbatim without quotation marks or year in parentheses.
citing the sources. Out-text Citation • The reference list at the end
of your paper, where you
Paraphrasing Plagiarism will provide full bibliography
• Restating someone else’s ideas in your own words information for all sources
without citing the sources. cited in the text,
• Format for different source
Mosaic Plagiarism types varies.
• Combining your own words with copied phrases
without proper citation.
Research Manuscript
• Represent the final written output of a research
Self-Plagiarism study, available in both written and digital formats.
• Reusing your own previously published work • Although researchers follow a series of steps in a
without proper citation. specific order, the manuscript’s structure does not
necessarily align with the chronology of the
research process.
• Content and format of research manuscripts should
adhere to established guidelines.

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY | Page 5

Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Gantt Chart
• A visual representation of a project schedule.
• Essentially a bar chart that shows the start and end
dates of the different tasks involved in a project.

Benefits
Visual Overview • Provides a clear picture
of the project timeline and
dependencies between
tasks.
Task management • Helps in planning,
scheduling, and tracking
task progress.
Resource Allocation • Can be used to allocate
resources effectively.
Risk Management • Helps in identifying
potential bottlenecks and
delays.

Research Title
• A concise and informative statement that
encapsulates the core focus of your research study.
• Serves as the first impression of your work and
should accurately reflect the content and purpose
of your research.

FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY | Page 6

Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 2 Variables

Quantitative Methods Dependent Variables

• Measured, outcome, controlled, explained,
Variables response variables.
Qualitative Variables • Outcome or results that are influenced by the
independent variable.
• Categorize data based on qualities or
• Researchers measure this to determine if the
characteristics, such as gender, religion, or type of
independent variable had an effect.
error.
• Describes differences in kind. Situational Variables
• Characteristics or factors within the environment
Qualitative Data • Descriptive, relating to
words and language. that can influence behavior or outcomes.
• Described certain • Things that the researchers try to control, manage,
attributed and helps us to at some point since it can influence the independent
understand the ‘why’ or variables.
‘how’ behind certain o Physical Environment: temperature,
behaviors. noise, level, lighting.
• Dynamic and subjective, o Social Environment: group size,
open to interpretation. presence of others, competition.
• Gathered through o Task-Related Factors: difficulty of a
observations and task, time constraints.
interviews.
• Analyzed by grouping the Subject Variable
data into meaningful • Personal characteristics or attributes of individuals
themes or categories. that can influence behavior or outcomes.
Quantitative Variables • Are inherent to the participants and cannot be
manipulated by the researcher.
• Measure data based on numerical values, such as o Demographic Information: age,
height, weight, or number of errors. gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status.
• Describes differences in amount. o Personality Traits: introversion,
extroversion, agreeableness.
Quantitative Data • Countable or
o Abilities: intelligence, cognitive skills,
measurable, relating to
numbers. physical abilities.
• Tells us how many, how Constructs
much, or how often.
• Fixed and universal, • Abstract ideas or concepts that represent
factual. underlying mental or physical processes.
• Gathered by measuring • Not directly observable unit but are inferred from
and counting things. measurable behaviors or outcomes.
• Analyzed using statistical • They are the theoretical building blocks of
analysis. research.
• Things that we, hypothetically, created to measure
Discrete Variables something that is not tangible but is observable.
• Can only take on specific, whole number values.
• There is a specific quota for the data. Hypothetical • Exist as theoretical
• Number of errors, children, etc. concepts rather than
• Observations can only exist at limited values, often tangible entities.
counts. Inferred • Presence is deduced
from observable data.
Continuous Variables Complex • Often multi-dimensional
• Can take on any value within a range, including and encompass various
decimals. related concepts.
• Height, age, blood alcohol level.
• Measured data can have infinite values within Mediator Variables
possible range. • Explains the process through which two variables
are related.
Independent Variables • Acts as a middleman, carrying the effect of the
• Believed to cause changes in other variables. independent variable to the dependent variable.
• In research, they are manipulated to observe their • Answers the question: “How does one variable
effects. influence another?”
• Manipulated, exposure, control, explanatory
variables.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Variables Reliability
Moderator Variable Test-Retest Reliability
• Influences the strength or direction of the • Measures the consistency of results over time.
relationship between two variables. • Administer the same test to the same group of
• Changes the way the IV affects the DV. participants on two different occasions and
• Tries to give the researchers the idea of how does correlate the scores.
the IV affects the DV.
• Answers the questions: “For whom or under what Inter-Rater Reliability
conditions is the relationship between two variables • Measures the consistency of ratings between
stronger or weaker. different observers or raters.
• Multiple raters independently assess the same data
Conceptual Definition or subjects and compare their ratings.
• A general, abstract description of a variable or
concept. Parallel Forms Reliability
• To convey underlying meaning and theoretical • Measures the consistency between two equivalent
basis of the concept. forms of the same test.
• Create two different versions of a test that measure
Operational Definition the same construct and administer both versions to
• A specific, concrete description of how a variable the same group of participants.
will be measured or manipulated in a study.
• To translate the abstract concept into measurable Internal Consistency Reliability
terms. • Measures the consistency of items within a single
test or scale.
Measurement • Assess how closely related items are within a test.
• The systematic process of assigning numerical or
categorical values to represent the attributes of Validity
something.
Construct Validity
• Depends to the study.
• Accuracy of a measurement tool in representing the
Nominal Scale • Used to label variables in construct it intends to measure.
different classifications • Measurement level.
and does not imply a • Tool measures what it is supposed to.
quantitative value or
order. Translation Validity
• Categorizes. • Whether the measure adequately represents the
Ordinal Scale • To represent non- underlying construct it aims to measure.
mathematical ideas such
as frequency, Translation
satisfaction, happiness, a Face Validity • Tool measures content
degree of pain, etc. according to the lay
• Ranking. person.
Interval Scale • Defined as a numerical • Does the measure
scale where the order of appear to measure the
the variables as well as intended construct at face
the difference between value?
these variables are Content Validity • Tool measures content
known. according to an expert
• There is a negative value. based on theory.
Ratio Scale • A variable measurement • Does the measure cover
scale that not only all relevant aspects of the
produces the order of the construct.
variables but also makes
the difference between Criterion Validity
the known variable along • How well the measure correlates with other
with information about the measures of the same construct or a related
value of the true zero. construct.
• Absolute zero.
Criterion
Accuracy Predictive Validity • Tool predicts significant
• The ability to hit a target. differences among
different groups.
Precision
Concurrent Validity • Tool gives similar scores
• Ability to achieve the same results over and over. as other tools on the
• You can be accurate without being precise and same subject.
precise without being accurate. • About how a measure
matches up to some

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

known criteria or gold to threats to internal

standard. validity like maturation
Convergent Validity • Shows how much a and history effects.
measure of on construct Static Group • Compares two existing
aligns with other Comparison groups, one exposed to
measures of the same or treatment and one not.
related construct. • Lack of random
Discriminant Validity • Tool gives high scores for assignment weaken
well people and low causal inferences.
scores for sick people.
True Experimental Designs
Inference Validity • Involve random assignment of participants to
• The accuracy of drawing conclusions (inferences) experimental and control group, providing strong
from the research findings. control over extraneous variables and enhancing
• Study level. causal inferences.

Pretest-Posttest • Randomly assigned

Internal Validity • Accurately establishes a Control Group groups are measured
causal relationship Design before and after the
between variables, treatment.
minimizing confounding • Allows for comparison
factors and bias. between groups.
• Ensures the
trustworthiness of the Posttest-only Control • Randomly assigned
results within the study. Group Design groups are measured
after the treatment.
External Validity • The generalizability of the • Efficient but lacks
study’s result to other baseline data.
settings, populations, or
situations. Solomon Four-Group • Combines the previous
• Assess how those results Design two designs, providing
can be applied in broader information about the
contexts. impact of the pretest.
• Offers strong control but
Experimental Design is complex and time-
consuming.
Independent Variable
• Factor manipulated by the researchers.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
• Lack random assignment but attempt to control for
Dependent Variable extraneous variables through matching or statistical
• Outcome or response measured. techniques.

Control Group Randomized Blocks • Participants are grouped

• A group not exposed to the independent variable for based on a relevant
variable and then
comparison.
randomly assigned to
Randomization treatment conditions
within each block.
• Assigning participants to groups randomly to
reduce bias.
Latin Square • Controls for multiple
variables by arranging
Replication participants in a matrix,
ensuring each treatment
• Repeated the experiment to ensure reliability of condition appears once in
results. each row and column.
Pre-Experimental Designs Time Series Design • Multiple measurements
are taken before and after
• Offer minimal control over extraneous variables and
a treatment to establish a
lack a control group, making it difficult to establish pattern and assess the
causal relationships. impact of the intervention.
One-shot Case Study • A single group is exposed Statistical Designs
to a treatment, followed
by a measurement. • Involve statistical techniques to analyze data and
• Offers the least control control for extraneous variables.
and is often used for
exploratory purposes.
Time Series Design • Similar with quasi-
experimental, but with a
One-group Pretest- • A single group is stronger focus on
Posttest Design measured before and statistical analysis to
after a treatment. identify patterns and
• While it provides a trends.
baseline, it’s susceptible

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Multiple Time Series • Compares two or more Correlational Research Design

Design time series to assess the
impact of a treatment. Based on the Constancy of the Ratio of Change
between the Variables
Correlational Research Design Simple Correlation • Measures the
relationship between two
Correlational Research variables.
• Examines the relationship between two or more Multiple Correlation • Measures the
variables without manipulating them. relationship between one
• While it doesn’t establish causation, it can identify dependent variable and
patterns and trends. two or more independent
variable.
Types Based on Data Collection Methods Partial Correlation • Measures the
Naturalistic • Involves observing relationship between two
Observation subjects in their natural variables while controlling
environment without for the effect of one or
interference. more other variable.
Survey Research • Collects data through
questionnaires or Descriptive Research Design
interviews.
Descriptive Research Design
Archival Research • Analyzes existing data,
such as records or • A research method used to describe the
databases. characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
• Aims to accurately portray the subject under study
Based on Study Design without manipulating variables.
Cross-sectional • Collect data from a • It answers the questions “What”, “where”, “how”, but
Studies sample population at a not “why”.
specific point in time. • To provide a detailed and accurate picture of a
Longitudinal Studies • Collect data from the population or phenomenon.
same group of • To identify patterns, trends, and relationships
participants over an among variables.
extended period.
Methods of Descriptive Researcher
Cohort Studies • Follow a group of people
with a shared Surveys • Collecting data through
characteristic over time. questionnaire or interviews.
• Cohort: shares a Observational • Observing and recording
common characteristic. Studies behavior in natural or controlled
Case-control Studies • Compare people with a settings.
specific condition to those Case Study • In-depth investigations of
without to identify individuals or groups.
potential risk factors. Content • Analyzing existing documents
Analysis or media.
Correlation
• A statistic that measures the degree to which two
Types of Descriptive Researcher
securities move in relation to each other.
Surveys • Collecting data through
Based on the Direction of Change of Variables questionnaire or interviews.
Positive Correlation • As one variable Observational • Observing and recording
increases, the other also Studies behavior in natural or controlled
increases. settings.
Negative Correlation • As one variable Case Study • In-depth investigations of
increases, the other individuals or groups.
decreases. Content • Systematic analysis of written
No correlation • There is no relationship Analysis or visual materials.
between the two Ethnographic • Immersive study of a culture or
variables. Research group to understand their
beliefs, behaviors, and artifacts.
Based on the Number of Variables Studied
Delphi Method • A structured group techniques
Linear Correlation • Relationship between used to reach consensus on a
two variables can be specific topic.
represented by a straight
Historical • Examining past events to
line.
Research understand current trends or
Non-linear • Relationship between predict future outcomes.
Correlation two variables is not linear
but curved.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Population and Sampling Item Creation • The initial phase of

developing instrument items.
Population • Literature Review:
• Measurable quality is called a parameter. examining existing
• Population is a complete set. researcher to identify relevant
• Reports are a true representation of opinion. constructs, variables, and
measurement approaches.
• Contains all members of a specified group.
• Survey: gathering data from
Sample a sample population to
explore their perspectives
• Measurable quality is called a statistic. and experiences related to
• Sample is a subset of the population. the research topic.
• Reports have a margin of error and confidence • In-depth Interviews:
interval. conducting detailed
• A subset that represents the entire population. conversations with
participants to uncover
Sampling deeper insights and nuances.
• Process of selecting a subset of individuals from a Substrata • Involves categorizing items
larger population to estimate characteristics of the Identification into underlying dimensions or
whole population. constructs.
• Probability and Non-probability Sampling. • Own Category Method:
experts’ group similar items
Probability Sampling together to form distinct
Simple Random • Every member of the categories or substrata.
Sampling population has an equal Item Selection • From the pool of generated
chance of being selected. items, a subset is chosen for
Clustered • Divide the population into the final instrument.
Sampling clusters, randomly select • Ranking Exercise: experts
clusters, and then sample all or researchers rank items
individuals within selected based on their relevance,
clusters. clarity, and importance.
Systematic • Select individuals at regular Item Revision • Selected items are refined
Sampling intervals from a list of the and improved based on
population. feedback.
• Index Card Sorting Test:
Stratified • Divide the population into participants sort items into
Random subgroups (strata) based on categories, providing insights
Sampling specific characteristics and into item clarity and grouping.
then randomly select from
each stratum. Instrument Validation
Non-Probability Sampling • Assesses the instrument’s accuracy, reliability, and
validity.
Convenience • Select individuals based on
Sampling availability and accessibility, Item Preparation • Finalizing the instrument for
Consecutive • Recruit all participants who use.
Sampling meet the inclusion criteria • Pre-test: administering the
until a sample size is instrument to a small sample
reached. to identify any issues or
Quota Sampling • Create a sample that reflects ambiguities.
the characteristics of the • Pilot Test: conducting a
population based on specific larger-scale test to assess
quota. reliability and validity.
Purposive or • Select individuals based on • Instrument Translation:
Judgmental specific criteria determined by translating the instrument into
Sampling the researcher, other languages if necessary.
Snowball • Participants recommend
Instrument • Using the finalized instrument
Sampling Application to collect data from the target
other potential participants,
creating a chain of referrals. population.
• Field Survey: administering
Instrument Development the instrument to the study
participants.
• A systematic process of creating a tool to measure
specific variables or constructs.
• It involves several stages.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 3 Descriptive Statistics

Data Analysis Measures of Dispersion

• Quantify how spread out or scattered data points
Descriptive Statistics
are from a central value.
• Summarize and describe data. • Helps us understand the variability or
• Present data in a meaningful way. consistency within a dataset.
• Measures of central tendency, dispersion,
frequency distribution. Range • Measures the
• Example: calculating averages, creating charts. difference between the
largest and smallest
Inferential Statistics value in a dataset.
• Make inferences about a population. • Use when you need a
• Draw conclusions beyond data. quick and simple
measure of the overall
• Hypothesis testing, confidence intervals,
spread of data.
correlation analysis, regression analysis.
• Simple and quick, but
• Example: determining significance, predicting sensitive to outliers.
future outcomes.
Standard Deviation • Measures the average
Descriptive Statistics distance of each data
point from the mean.
Measures of Central Tendency • Use when you want a
• Are statistical values that represent a typical or more precise and
commonly used
central value of a dataset.
measure of dispersion.
• Provide a summary of the data distribution. • Common and precise
fore normally
Mean • Arithmetic average of a distributed data, but
dataset. sensitive to outliers.
• Use when the data is
normally distributed Variance • The square of the
and there are no standard deviation.
outliers. • Primarily used in
statistical calculations
Median • Middle value in a and formulas.
dataset when the
• Often a precursor to
values are arranged in
calculating standard
ascending order.
deviation.
• Use when the data is
skewed or has outliers. Absolute Deviation • Measures the average
• Median is less affected absolute difference
by these factors. between each data
point and the mean.
Mode • Most frequently • Use when you want a
occurring value in a measure of dispersion
dataset. that is less sensitive to
• Use when identifying outliers than standard
the most common deviation.
category or value in a
dataset.

Symmetrical • Mean is the often best

Distribution choice.
Skewed Distribution • Median is often
preferred as it is less
affected by outliers.
Nominal Data • Mode is the only
appropriate measure.
Ordinal Data • Median or Mode can
be used, depending on
the research question.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Inferential Statistics Nominal Regression • Models a relationship

between a categorical
Hypothesis Testing DV and one or more IV.
• Statistical method used to determine whether a • Use when the DV has
hypothesis is true or false based on sample data. mutually exclusive
• Involves setting up a null hypothesis and categories.
alternative hypothesis and then using statistical Logistic Regression • Models the probability
tests to evaluate the evidence. of a binary outcome
based on one or more
Z-test • Compares a sample IV.
mean to a known • Use when the DV is
population mean. binary.
• Use when the sample is Ordinal Regression • Models a relationship
large, and the between an ordinal DV
population standard and one or more IV.
deviation is known. • Use when the DV has
T-test • Compares a sample ordered categories.
mean to a known
population mean or Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests
compares the means of
two independent Parametric Tests
samples. • Statistical tests that make assumptions about
• Use when the sample the underlying population distribution, typically
size is small, and the assuming it follows a normal distribution.
population standard • Allow for more powerful and precise analyses.
deviation is unknown.
• Rely on the assumption of normality.
F-test • Determines if there is a • Assume that the variances of the groups being
significant difference in compared are equal.
the variability of two or
more groups. T-test • Compares the means
• Use to compare the of two groups,
variance of two or more • Use when the sample
samples. size is small.
ANOVA (Analysis of • Determines if there is a ANOVA (Analysis of • Compares the means
Variance) significant difference in Variance) of more than two
the means of multiple groups.
groups.
• Use when there are
• Use to compare the more than two
means of three or more independent groups.
independent group.
Regression Analysis • Examines the
Wilcoxon Signed Rank • Compares the medians relationship between a
Test of two paired samples. DV and one or more IV.
• Use when the data is • When you want to
paired and the predict a DV based on
assumptions of the t- the DV.
test are not met.
Pearson Correlation • Measures the strength
Mann-Whitney U Test • Compared the medians Coefficient and direction of the
of two independent linear relationship
samples. between two variables.
• Use when the data is • When you want to
independent and the assess the association
assumptions of the t- between two
test are not met. continuous variables.
Regression Analysis Chi-square Test • Tests for independence
between categorical
• Statistical analysis used to model the
variables.
relationship between a dependent variable and • Use when you have
one or more independent variables. categorical data.
• Helps in understanding how changes in the • To determine if there is
independent variable affects the dependent a relationship between
variable. one or more categorical
variables.
Linear Regression • Models a linear
relationship between
the DV and IV.
• Use when there’s a
straight line relationship
between the variables.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests

Non-Parametric Tests
• Statistical tests that do not assume a specific
distribution for the data.
• Makes them versatile and applicable to a wider
range of scenarios, specially when data is not
normally distributed or when the underlying
assumptions of parametric tests are violated.

Spearman Rank • Measures the

Correlation Coefficient monotonic relationship
between two variables.
• Use when the data is
ordinal or when the
relationship between
variables is not linear.
Kendall’s Tau • Measures the
monotonic
relationships.
• Often used when there
are ties in the data.
Mann-Whitney U Tests • Compares the medians
of two independent
samples.
• Use when the data is
not normally distributed
and the assumption of
equal variance is
violated.
Wilcoxon Signed Rank • Compares the medians
Test of two dependent
samples.
• Use when data is
paired or matched, and
the assumption of
normality is violated.
Kruskal-Wallis Test • Compares the medians
of three or more
independent samples.
• Use when data is not
normally distributed
and the assumption of
equal variances is
violated.
Friedman Tests • Compares the medians
of three or more
dependent samples.
• Use when data is
paired or matched, and
the assumption of
normality is violated.
Chi-square Test of • Tests for independence
Independence between two
categorical variables.
• Use when both
variances are
categorical.
Fisher’s Exact Test • Alternative to the chi-
square test, specially
when the sample sizes
are small.
Kolmogorov-Smirnov • Tests if a sample
Test distribution fits a
theoretical distribution.
• Use to assess if data
follows a specific
distribution.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 4 Philosophical Underpinning

Introduction to Qualitative Research Interpretivism

• Focuses on understanding subjective experiences
Qualitative Research and meanings.
• A method of studying people and their experiences • Reality is socially constructed and interpreted
in a natural setting. through human interaction.
• Instead of using numbers and statistics, • Ex. in-depth interviews with immigrants to
researchers collect data in the form of words, understand their cultural experiences and
images, or sounds. challenges in adapting to a new society.
• Allows them to gain a deeper understanding of
people’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Critical Theory
• Challenges dominant power structures and seeks
Advantages of Qualitative Research to empower marginalized groups.
Flexibility • Reality is shaped by social, political, and economic
forces.
• Research can be adapted as new insights are
• Ex. a study examining the impact of corporate
discovered.
globalization on indigenous communities in the
• Ex. a researcher conducting interviews might adjust
Philippines.
the questions based on the participants’ responses.
Constructivism
Natural Setting
• Emphasizes the role of individual and social
• Data is collected in a real-world environment.
interactions in shaping knowledge.
• Ex. observing children’s behavior in a classroom
• Reality is created through individual and social
setting.
interpretations.
Meaningful Insights • Ex. a study exploring how teachers’ beliefs about
teaching influence their classroom practices.
• Provides detailed descriptions of participants’
experiences. Phenomenology
• Ex. understanding how participants’ experiences.
• Focuses on understanding the subjective
Generation of New Ideas experiences of individuals.
• Reality is based on individual perceptions and
• Uncovers unexpected problems or opportunities.
interpretations.
• Ex. identifying previously unknown factors affecting
• Ex. a study examining the experiences of patients
customer satisfaction.
undergoing chemotherapy treatment.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research
Postmodernism
Unreliability • Challenges the idea of a single, objective reality.
• External factors can influence data collection. • Emphasizes the fragmentation and multiplicity of
• Ex. weather conditions affecting participant perspectives.
attendance in a focus groups. • Ex. a deconstructive analysis of popular media
representation of women in the Philippines.
Subjectivity
• Researcher bias can influence data interpretation. Pragmatism
• Ex. different researchers might draw different • Emphasizes the practical application of knowledge.
conclusions from the same interview data. • Reality is based on what works and what is useful.
• Ex. a study evaluating the effectiveness of a new
Limited Generalizability teaching method in improving student learning
• Findings might not apply to the broader population. outcomes.
• Ex. a study conducted in a rural community might
not be representative of an urban population.
Qualitative Research Approaches

Labor-Intensive Grounded Theory

• Data analysis can be time consuming. • Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest
and develop theories inductively.
• Ex. manually coding hundreds on interview
transcripts. • Ex. a study of the experiences of homeless
individuals to understand the factors contributing to
Philosophical Underpinning their situation.

Positivism Ethnography
• Emphasizes objectivity, measurement, and the • Researchers immerse themselves in groups or
scientific method. organization to understand their cultures.
• Reality is seen as external and independent of the • Ex. a study of the cultural practices of a remote
observer. indigenous community.
• Ex. a study of the relationship between student
attendance and academic performance using
standardized tests and statistical analysis.

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Field Methods in Psychology
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Qualitative Research Approaches Qualitative Data Analysis

Action Research Thematic Analysis
• Researchers and participants collaboratively link • Method of identifying, analyzing, and reporting
theory to practice driving social change. patterns (themes) across a data set.
• Ex. a project to improve teaching and learning in a • Involves identifying themes that are recurrent,
school through teacher professional development. salient, and important.
• Ex. analyzing interview transcripts to identify
Phenomenological Research common themes related to job satisfaction.
• Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by
describing and interpreting participants lived Textual Analysis
experiences. • Method of analyzing the structure, meaning, and
• Ex. a study of the experiences of people who have context of a text.
discovered from a serious illness. • Involves examining the language used, the
relationship between words, and the overall
Narrative Research narrative.
• Researchers examine how stories are told to • Ex. analyzing a novel to explore the author’s use of
understand how participants perceive and make symbolism.
sense of their experiences.
• Ex. a study of the life stories of immigrants to Discourse Analysis
understand their experiences of migration and • Method of analyzing the ways in which language is
adaptation. used to construct social reality.
• Involves examining the power relations, ideologies,
Qualitative Research Method and cultural practices that are embedded in
Observations language.
• Ex. analyzing political speeches to examine how
• Recording what you have seen, heard, or
politicians use language to persuade voters.
encountered in detailed field notes.
• Ex. observing classroom interactions to understand Data Analysis Steps
teacher-student dynamics.
Prepare and Organize Data
Interviews • Transcribe interviews, type up fieldnotes, and
• Personally asking people questions in one-on-one organize data into a manageable format.
conversation. • Ex. transcribe interviews and create a spreadsheet
• Ex. interviewing parents about their experiences to organize responses.
with their children’s education.
Review and Explore Data
Focus Groups • Examine the data for patterns, repeated ideas, and
• Asking questions and generating discussion among key themes.
a group of people. • Ex. read through interview to transcripts and identify
• Ex. conducting a focus group with students to recurring topics.
discuss their opinions on school uniforms.
Develop a Data Coding System
Surveys • Create a set of codes to categorize and label data.
• Distributing questionnaires with open-ended • Ex. develop codes such as “student engagement”.
questions. “Teacher support”, and “learning challenges”.
• Ex. administering a survey to teachers to gather
their perspectives on curriculum reform. Assign Codes to Data
• Apply codes to relevant selections of the data.
Secondary Research • Ex. tag sections of interviews transcripts with
• Collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, appropriate codes.
audio, or video recordings, etc.
• Ex. analyzing historical documents to understand Identify Recurring Themes
the evolution of education policy. • Link codes together to form broader, overarching
themes.
Qualitative Data Analysis • Ex. group codes related to “student engagement”
Content Analysis into a theme of “positive learning experiences”.
• A systematic, objective, and quantitative technique
for analyzing written or spoken material.
• Involves identifying, counting, and categorizing
units of content within a text.
• Ex. analyzing news articles to identify the frequency
of mentions of climate change.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 5
Critical Discourse Analysis
Qualitative Data Analysis • Qualitative method that examines how power,
ideology, and social structures are communicated
Content Analysis through language in texts.
• A systematic, quantitative, and objective method for • Emphasizes the role of language in maintaining or
describing and analyzing the content of challenging power.
communication. • Use when exploring how language is used in social
• Focuses on the frequency and patterns of words or contexts to shape meaning.
phrases. • Suitable for examining how language reflects and
• Use when analyzing the presence of certain words, constructs social realities.
phrases, or concepts in texts.
• When suitable for large volumes of text. Strengths • Helps understand power
dynamics, social norms, and
Strengths • Provides quantitative data on word ideologies in language.
frequency and patterns. • Reveals how discourse shapes
• Systematic and replicable. perceptions and ideologies.
• Can handle large data sets • Useful in critical social analysis.
efficiently. Weaknesses • Complex and requires deep
Weaknesses • Does not capture underlying familiarity with the socio-cultural
meanings or context. context.
• Can be too simplistic for complex • Time-intensive.
data. • Findings can be highly
• May miss nuances in interpretative.
communication or content. • Challenging to apply to large
dataset.
Thematic Analysis
• A qualitative method used to identify, analyze, and
report patterns (themes) with data.
• Emphasizes meaning across a dataset rather than
frequency.
• Use when identifying patterns and themes across
qualitative data.
• Good for understanding experiences. Emotions,
and perspectives.

Strengths • Flexible and accessible method for

qualitative analysis.
• Can provide rich, detailed insights.
• Helps in identifying key issues,
shared meanings, and common
experiences.
Weaknesses • Can be subjective; themes depend
on the researcher’s perspective.
• Time-consuming.
• Potential for researcher bias in
identifying interpreting themes.

Textual Analysis
• Method of interpreting the content and meaning of
a text by considering how language is used to
convey meaning.
• Focuses on how text constructs reality or identity.
• Use when analyzing written, visual, or spoken texts
to understand their meaning.
• Useful for studying narrative structures, symbols,
and language use.

Strengths • Good for exploring deep

meanings, symbolism, and hidden
messages in text.
• Focuses on nuances,
connotations, and language use.
Weaknesses • Can be highly subjective.
• Difficult to generalize findings.
• May lacks rigor if not
systematically approaches.
• Harder to replicate.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

CHAPTER 6 Cons

Triangulation in Research Time-Consuming

• Takes a lot of time and effort.
Triangulation • Managing different data sources and methods can
• Using different sources, methods, theories, or be challenging, and it often requires a larger team
researchers to study the same questions. and budget.
• Helps make your findings stronger, more reliable,
and less likely to be biased. Inconsistent Result
• Often used in qualitative research but can also be • Sometimes, data from different sources don’t match
useful in quantitative research. up or may even contradict each other.
• If you choose mixed methods approach, you’ll • This can be confusing but may lead to new insights
always be using methodological triangulation (using if you explore why the data differ.
different methods to look at the same question from
multiple angles). Types of Triangulations

In Qualitative • You conduct in-depth Data Triangulation

Research interviews with different • Using data from different times, locations, or groups
groups of stakeholders, such of people to get a broader perspective.
as parents, teachers, and • Ex. collect data on student stress from students at
children. various schools, different times, and grade levels.
In Quantitative • You conduct an eye-tracking
Research experiment and have three Investor Triangulation
different researchers review • Involving multiple researchers in data collection or
the results to reduce bias and analysis to reduce individual bias.
ensure accuracy. • Ex. three researchers analyze the same mental
In Mixed Methods • You start with a survey to health interviews to provide diverse insights.
Research collect numerical data, then
follow up with a few structured Theory Triangulation
interviews to get deeper, • Applying different theories to interpret the data,
personal insights on the same offering multiple viewpoints on the same data.
topic.
• Ex. use both Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need and
Purpose of Triangulation Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory to study workplace
motivation.
Cross-checking Data
Methodological Triangulation
• Using multiple sources or methods helps confirm
data reliability, increasing the credibility of findings. • Using different research methods to explore the
same topic, combining their strengths.
• If data from different sources align, you can trust the
results more. • Ex. study customer satisfaction by combining
survey results with in-depth interviews.
Getting a Complete Picture
Mixed Methods Research
• Triangulation provides a fuller understanding by
examining the research questions from different Mixed Methods
angles. • Uses both quantitative and qualitative approaches
Improving Validity to answer a research question.
• By combining these two methods, you get a more
• Combining different methods covers the weakness
well-rounded understanding of your topic than if you
of one method with the strengths of another, leading
used only one method on its own.
to more accurate results.
• Useful in fields like behavioral, health, and social
Pros sciences, where it helps researchers explore
complex issues from multiple angles.
Reduces Bias • Commonly used in studies that involve different
• Using multiple sources, methods, or perspectives disciplines or examine complicated social
help avoid the bias from one viewpoint. situations.
• You get more balanced of the topic.
When to Use
Increases Credibility and Validity Generalizability • Qualitative research often
• Combining different approaches makes your has smaller sample sizes,
research more reliable and closer to real-life. making findings less
• You can trust the results more when they’re applicable to larger groups.
• Mixed methods combine
supported by multiple sources.
smaller qualitative studies
with larger quantitative
studies for broader
applicability.

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Field Methods in Psychology
Balquin, Kristel Joyce C. | PSY 235 National University - MOA

Contextualization • Mixing methods adds context • Qualitative first then Quantitative.

and rich details to your
findings.
• Qualitative data can clarify
and add depth to quantitative
results, making the analysis
more meaningful.
Credibility • Using different methods for
the same topic increases the
trustworthiness of your
findings.
• If both qualitative and
quantitative data support the
same conclusion, it
strengthens your results.

Advantages of Mixed Methods Research

“Best of Both Worlds” Analysis
• Combining qualitative and quantitative data
provides a comprehensive view.
• Quantitative data offers detailed insights into
experiences, while quantitative data provides
generalizable results.

Method Flexibility
• Mixed methods allow for a creative and adaptable
research design.
• Researchers can use different approaches
together, enabling exploration of new theories and
testing of hypotheses within the same study.

Disadvantages of Mixed Methods Research

Workload
• Mixed methods research is time-consuming and
labor intensive.
• It often requires team of researchers, leading to
higher costs and more effort compared to single-
method studies.

Differing or Conflicting Results

• Conflicts between qualitative and quantitative
results can complicate interpretation.
• If the results don’t match, it can be difficult to
analyze and compare them systematically, which
may result in biased interpretation.

Mixed Methods Research Design

Convergent Parallel
• Collects quantitative and qualitative data at the
same time and analyzes them separately.
• Both quantitative and qualitative.

Embedded
• Collects both type of data simultaneously, but one
type is secondary to the other.
• Quanti or Quali within a Quali or Quanti.

Explanatory Sequential
• Gathers and analyzes quantitative data first,
followed by qualitative data to explain findings.
• Quantitative first then Qualitative.

Exploratory Sequential
• Starts with qualitative data collection and analysis,
followed by quantitative data collection.

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