Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

UNIT I

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

Sand Casting: Sand Mould -Type of patterns- Pattern Materials- Pattern

allowances Moulding sand Properties and testing - Cores -Types and
applications - Melting furnaces: Blast and Cupola Furnaces; Moulding
machines- Types and applications; Principle of special casting processes: Shell
- Investment - Ceramic mould - Pressure die casting- Centrifugal Casting – CO2
process Stir casting - Defects in Sand casting.

Manufacturing

Manufacturing is the process of converting raw materials into finished products to be used for
some purpose. Manufacturing can be broadly divided into two groups.

a) Primary manufacturing

its Provide basic shape and size. Some of the important primary shaping processes is:

(1) Casting,

(2) Powder metallurgy,

(3) Plastic technology,

(4) Gas cutting,

(5) Bending and

(6) Forging

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

b) Secondary manufacturing

Provide final shape and size with tighter control on dimension, surface characteristics. Some of
the common secondary or machining processes are

(1)Turning, (2)Milling, (3) Drilling, (4) Boring, (5) Planning, (6) Shaping, (7) Slotting,
(8) Broaching, (9) Hobbing, (10) Grinding, (11) Gear cutting, & (12) Unconventional
machining processes

Manufacturing Engineering

it is the specialization of a Mechanical Engineering. Mechanical Engineering with the focus only
on Machine Tools, Materials Science, and Quality Control is known as Manufacturing
Engineering.

Manufacturing processes

manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a
final product.

functions of manufacturing process

To change the physical properties of the raw material.

To change the shape and size of the work piece.

To produce required dimensional accuracy and surface finish.

Classification of Manufacturing processes

(a) Casting processes.

(b)Forming processes

(c) Fabrication processes .

(d) Material removal processes

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Casting is a process in which liquefied material, such as molten metal, is poured into the cavity
of a specially designed mold and allowed to harden. After solidification, the work piece is
removed from the mold to undergo various finishing treatments or for use as a final product.

Forming process is a mechanical process used in manufacturing industries wherein materials

(mostly metals) undergo plastic deformations and acquire required shapes and sizes by
application of suitable stresses Such as compression, shear and tension. In the forming
process, no material is removed; it is completely displaced and deformed into the required shape

Fabrication process is a secondary manufacturing process. In fabrication process we join two or

more metal or non metal parts together. Fabrication is done with the help of heat and (or)
pressure.

Material removal process is a type of manufacturing process in which the final product is
obtained by removing excess metal from the stock.

Casting process

 Casting process means pouring molten metal into a refractory mold cavity and allows it
to solidify. The solidified object is taken out from the mold either by breaking or taking
the mold apart. The solidified object is called casting and the technique followed in
method is known as casting process.

Casting Processes classification

1. Expendable mold casting

2. Permanent mold casting processes

Expendable mould
Expendable mould casting is a generic classification that includes sand, plastic, shell,
plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) moulds. All these methods use temporary, non-
reusable molds. After the molten metal in the mold cavity solidifies, the mold is broken to take
out the solidified cast. Expendable mold casting processes are suitable for very complex shaped
parts and materials with high melting point temperature.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Permanent Mould Casting processes

Permanent mould casting processes involve the use of metallic dies that are permanent in nature
and can be used repeatedly. The metal moulds are also called dies and provide superior surface
finish and close tolerance than typical sand molds. The permanent mould casting processes
broadly include pressure die casting, centrifugal casting, and continuous casting.

Sand Casting
 Sand Casting is simply melting the metal and pouring it into a preformed cavity, called
mould, allowing the metal to solidify and then breaking up the mould to remove casting. In sand
casting expandable moulds are used. So for each casting operation you have to form a new
mould
basic steps in making sand castings
1. Patternmaking
2. Core making
3. Molding
4. Melting and pouring
5. Cleaning
Pattern making
The pattern is a physical model of the casting used to make the mould. The mould is made by
packing some readily formed aggregate material, such as moulding sand, around the pattern.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

When the pattern is withdrawn, its imprint provides the mold cavity, which is ultimately filled
with metal to become the casting. If the casting is to be hollow, as in the case of pipe fittings,
additional patterns, referred to as cores, are used to form these cavities.
Core making
Cores are forms, usually made of sand, which are placed into a mould cavity to form the interior
surfaces of castings. Thus the void space between the core and mould-cavity surface is what
eventually becomes the casting.
Molding
Molding consists of all operations necessary to prepare a mold for receiving molten metal.
Molding usually involves placing a molding aggregate around a pattern held with a supporting
frame, withdrawing the pattern to leave the mold cavity, setting the cores in the mold cavity and
finishing and closing the mold.
Melting and Pouring
The preparation of molten metal for casting is referred to simply as melting. Melting is usually
done in a specifically designated area of the foundry, and the molten metal is transferred to the
pouring area where the molds are filled.
Cleaning
Cleaning refers to all operations necessary to the removal of sand, scale, and excess metal from
the casting. Burned-on sand and scale are removed to improved the surface appearance of the
casting. Excess metal, in the form of fins, wires, parting line fins, and gates, is removed.
Inspection of the casting for defects and general quality is performed.
Types of sand molds
 Green-Sand
 Cold-Box, And
 No-Bake Molds.
Casting Terms
1. Flask: A metal or wood frame, without fixed top or bottom, in which the mold is formed.
Depending upon the position of the flask in the molding structure, it is referred to by various
names such as drag - lower molding flask, cope - upper molding flask, cheek – intermediate
molding flask used in three piece molding.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

2. Pattern: It is the replica of the final object to be made. The mold cavity is made with the help
of pattern.
3. Parting Line:This is the dividing line between the two molding flasks that makes up the
mold.
4. Bottom Board: This is a board normally made of wood which is used at the start of the mould
making. The pattern is first kept on the bottom board, sand is sprinkled on it and then the
ramming is done in the drag.
5. Molding Sand: Sand, which binds strongly without losing its permeability to air or gases. It is
a mixture of silica sand, clay and moisture in appropriate proportions.
6. Facing Sand: The small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled on the inner surface of
the mold cavity to give a better surface finish to the castings.
7. Backing Sand: it is what constitutes most of the refractory material found in the mould. This
is made up of used and burnt sand.
8. Core: A separate part of the mold, made of sand and generally baked, which is used to create
openings and various shaped cavities in the castings.
9. Pouring basin: A small funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mold into which the molten
metal is poured.
10. Sprue: The passage through which the molten metal, from the pouring basin, reaches the
mold cavity. In many cases it controls the flow of metal into the mold.
11. Runner: The channel through which the molten metal is carried from the sprue to the gate.
12. Gate: A channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity.
13. Chaplets: Chaplets are used to support the cores inside the mold cavity to take care of its
own weight and overcome the metallostatic force.
14. Chill: These are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate
of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
15. Riser: A column of molten metal placed in the mold to feed the castings as it shrinks and
solidifies. Also known as "feed head".
16. Vent: Small opening in the mold to facilitate escape of air and gases.
Green Sand Molding
It involves ramming sand around a pattern inside a container called flask. The various steps are:

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

1. The bottom half of the flask (drag) is placed upside down on a molding board and then drag
half of the pattern is placed inside the flask.
2. Parting Compound is dusted over the exposed surface. A layer of sand is riddled over the
pattern and rammed. The drag is then filled, rammed and struck off.

3. Bottom board is placed on the drag and they are turned over. Molding board is removed and
the top (cope) half of the flask is positioned using aligning pins. The cope half of the pattern is
inserted.
4. Gating system is formed using sprue and riser pins. Risers and sprues are formed during
ramming of the cope. Runners or gates are also formed during the molding process. The sprue
is an opening through which the metal enters, the runner leads the metal into the mold cavity
and the gate controls the floor of the metal into the cavity. Riser is a reservoir connected to
the cavity, which provides metal during solidification and for offsetting shrinkage, Venting is
often done at this point.
5. The flask is separated and the two pattern halves are removed. Cores needed for added details
are placed in the mold cavities.
6. Mold is closed and metal is poured slowly into the mold and allowed to solidify.
7. The mold is destroyed to recover the casting.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

cold-box mold process

In the cold-box mold process, various organic and inorganic binders are blended into the sand to
bond the grains chemically for greater strength. These molds are more dimensionally accurate
than green-sand molds, but are more expensive to make.
No-bake mold process
 In the no-bake mold process, a synthetic liquid resin is mixed with the sand, and the
mixture hardens at room temperature. Because the bonding of the mold in this and in the
cold-box process takes place without heat, they are called cold-setting processes.
Outline of production steps in a sand-

Pattern
Pattern is model of object which to be created. It is used to make hollow cavity in sand mold in
which molten metal is poured and allow solidifying to create object. The size and shape of cast
object is highly depends of shape and size of pattern. Mostly pattern are made by aluminum,
wood, wax etc. Metal pattern are used for mass production. The pattern making is most critical
work in casting because the object is highly depended on it.
Requirements of Pattern
 Low cost and easy to cast.
 Easy to repair.
 It should light in weight which make it easy to handle.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

 It should able to withstand ramming forces without deformation.

 It should does not change its dimensions in presence of moisture.
 It should be easily removable from mould.
 It should have long life without change in its dimensions.
Type of patterns
1) Solid or Single Piece Pattern 7) Sweep Pattern
2) Two- Piece Pattern 8) Loose Piece Pattern
3) Multi Piece Pattern 9) Cope and Drag Pattern
4) Match Plate Pattern 10) Follow Board Pattern
5) Gated Pattern 11) Segmental Pattern
6) Skeleton Pattern 12) Shell Pattern
solid pattern
A solid pattern or single piece pattern is a wooden pattern, also called one piece pattern
because of its constructional feature. It is used when the shape of castings to be produced is not
complex and also their numbers are small.

split pattern
A split pattern is used for complex castings not obtainable from solid patterns. The pattern is
split along the parting line into two parts, one for cope and another for drag.

Multi Piece Pattern

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Sometimes castings have very difficult and complicated designs. In such difficult situations
multi piece types of patterns are used. 3 or more patterns are included in multi piece pattern.
This three- piece pattern consists of top, bottom and middle parts. The bottom part is drag, top
part is cope where the middle part is termed as check box.

match plate pattern

A match plate pattern uses a match plate which has cope and drag impressions on its two sides
and it is useful for large scale production

gated pattern
A gated pattern is useful for small size castings to be produced in large numbers. It consists of
multicavity moulds which are fed by a single runner.
skeleton pattern
A skeleton pattern is a wooden pattern used for large size castings. It is in the form of a frame
outlining the shape of the casting.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Sweep Pattern
In sweep pattern we make use of wooden board. This wooden board of proper size is to be
rotated about one edge to shape the cavity as circular or rotational symmetry. Sweep pattern
consists of three parts spindle, base and sweep which is wooden board. Spindle is directed in
vertical direction and base is attached with sand

loose piece pattern

A loose piece pattern is used for complex castings involving withdrawal problem. It is made in
more than one piece. The larger part is withdrawn first and the smaller part is taken out through
the space created by removing the larger part.

cope and drag pattern

A cope and drag pattern is a variation of match plate pattern. It uses two match plates in
place of one as in the case of match plate pattern, one for cope part and another for drag
part of the casting.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Follow Board Pattern

Follow board pattern consists of tool that is a simple wooden board which is used for several
reasons. The wooden board is used as a base in follow board pattern for molding process. This
pattern is used in processes where casting structures are weak and they may break after the
application of force.

Segmental Pattern
It is just a similar to that of sweep pattern. segmental pattern is in the form of segments and
used for molding circular or round structures. In sweep pattern there is complete rotation but in
segmental pattern there is no complete rotation. For creating mold, we can rotate partly to get
required output.

Shell Pattern
Shell pattern is specially used for obtaining hollow shaped structure. Along the center the
parting process is done. The resultant halves produced after parting are both doweled.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Pattern Material
Types of Pattern Materials
The common materials from which patterns are made are the following:
 Wood
 Metal
 Plaster
 Plastic
 Wax
Wood
Wood patterns are used where the number of castings to be produced is small and the size of the
pattern is [Link] used woods for making patterns are
 teak,
 deodar,
 mahogany,
pine, etc
Advantages of Wood Materials
 It is cheap and available in abundance.
 It can be easily shaped into various forms and intricate designs.
 Due to its lightness in weight, it is easy to change it.
 A good surface can be easily achieved only by planning and sawing.
 It can be preserved for a long time by applying appropriate preservatives like shellac
varnish.
Disadvantages of Wood Materials

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

 It wears out quickly due to its low resistance to abrasion of sand that is why a wooden
pattern cannot be used continuously for a long time.
 It is susceptible to moisture, due to which it may crack or split.
 Its life, due to the above reasons, is shorter than that of other pattern materials.
 It is used in cases when a small number of castings are required.
Metal
A metal pattern is used where only the number of castings is large and near dimensional
accuracy is desired. Commonly used metal patterns are
 aluminum or its alloy,
 brass,
 white metal,
 steel, etc.
Advantages of Metal
 The life of the metal pattern is much longer than that of the wood pattern and largely
eliminates the natural damage of wood.
 Do not absorb moisture.
 More stronger.
 Get longer life.
 Precise and smooth surface finish.
 Good machinability.
Disadvantages of Metal
 They are expensive as compared to wood, so it is used less, where less number of
castings have to be done, it is not used.
 It requires machining to obtain different shapes and finer surfaces and again it takes a
separate cost.
 Most of these are very heavy patterns and in the case of large castings, the weight of the
pattern always becomes a problem in its manipulation.
 It has a tendency to rust in large numbers.
Plaster
 Plaster can be made from plaster of Paris or gypsum cement.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

 To obtain the plaster pattern, the plaster mix is poured into a mold made by a sweet
pattern or master pattern of the wood.
Advantages of Plaster
 It can be easily cast into complex shapes and worked easily.
 Its expansion can be easily controlled, and it has very high compressive strength.
 A distinctive feature of this cement is that unlike the action of the metal, it expands upon
solidification.
 If a cement of the proper coefficient of expansion is selected, the effect of shrinkage of
the casting can be automatically neutralized.
 It can be worked easily using wood working tools.
Disadvantages of Plaster
 Can only be used for small castings.
Plastic
 The plastic used as a patterned material is thermosetting resins, epoxy, PVC,
polyurethane foam, etc.
Advantages of Plastic Material
 Light in weight.
 High strength.
 High resistance to wear.
 High resistance to corrosion due to moisture.
 Fine surface.
 Low solid shrinkage and Reasonable cost
Disadvantages of Plastic Material
 These are fragile.
 These may not work well when subjected to severe shock conditions like machine
molding.
Wax
 Wax patterns are used exclusively in investment casting.
 For this, a die or metal mold is made in two parts in which hot wax is poured.
 The die is kept cool by spreading water around it.
 When the wax cools, the parts of the die are separated and the wax pattern is drawn.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Advantages of Wax
 Provide a very good surface finish.
 Provide high accuracy for costs.
 there is no chance of the mold cavity being damaged while removing the pattern.
Disadvantages of Wax
 Equipment and process costs are high.
 This process requires a high level of skill.
Selection of Pattern Material
The following factors aid in the selection of the appropriate pattern material:
 The number of castings to be produced.
 Quantity of production.
 Dimension accuracy and surface finish.
 Nature of molding process like sand casting, permanent mold casting, shell molding,
investment casting, etc.
 Method of moldings like a hand or machine moulding.
 Complexity and size of the casting.
Pattern allowances
 There are some allowances which are responsible for the difference in the dimensions of
the casting and the pattern. These allowances are considered when a pattern is designed
for casting.
Types of pattern allowances
1. Shrinkage allowance
2. Draft or taper allowance
3. Distortion allowance
4. Finishing or machining allowance
5. Shaking or rapping allowance
1. Shrinkage allowance
After solidification of the metal from further cooling (room temp.) dimensions of the
patterns increases. So pattern size is bigger than that of the finished cast products. This is
known as shrinkage allowance. It depends on:
a) Dimensions of casting

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

b) Design and intricacy of casting

c) Resistance of mol to shrinkage
d) Molding materials used
e) Method of molding used
f) Pouring temp of the molten metal
2. Draft or taper allowance
Pattern draft is the taper placed on the pattern surfaces that are parallel to the direction in which
the pattern is withdrawn from the mould (that is perpendicular to the parting plane), to allow
removal of the pattern without damaging the mould cavity. It depends on:
a) the method of molding
b) the sand mixture used
c) the design
d) economic restrictions imposed on the casting
e) intricacy of the pattern
3. Distortion allowance
When the metal is in cooling process, stress is developed in the solid metal due to uneven
metal thickness in the casting process. This stress may cause distortion or bending in the
casting. To avoid this bending or distortion in casting, camber is provided in the opposite
direction so that when bending occurs due to uneven thickness of metal, casting becomes
straight. This change in pattern shape to compensate bending while casting is known as
Bending Allowances.
4. Finishing or machining allowance:
As we know that the product of a casting process gives very poor surface finish, hence the
surface of final product of casting will be rough. But we need a product which is polished
and have good surface finish. So to obtain good surface finish, the final product of casting
is machined with the processes like turning or grinding to improve the surface finish. This
machining after the casting process causes a significant loss of metal from the mold part.
To compensate this loss, machining or finishing allowances are given in the pattern of
casting. This allowance is added together with basic size of pattern It depends on:
a) Machining operation
b) Characteristics of metal

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

c) Methods of castings
d) Size, shapes and volumes of castings
e) Degree of finish required in castings
f) configuration of the casting.
5. Shaking or rapping allowance:
When the pattern is to be removed from the sand of casting the pattern will have to be
shaken slightly to remove it from the sand and this will cause a slight increase in dimension
of casting. To compensate this increase in dimension of casting, the patterns are made
slightly smaller from casting. This change in dimension of pattern is known as shaking or
rapping allowances.
Molding material
 In foundry, various types of materials are playing a vital role in the manufacturing of
casting product. These are grouped in to two categories:
(1) Basic and (2) Auxiliary
 Basic molding materials includes silica sands, which forms the base and the various
binders. Auxiliary groups include various additives which impart desired properties to
the moulding and core sand.
Types of sands
1. Natural sand
2. Synthetic sand
3. Chemically coated sand
Naturally Bonded
Naturally bonded sand is less expensive but it includes organic impurities that reduce the
fusion temperature of the sand mixture for the casting, lower the binding strength, and require
higher moisture content.
Synthetic Sand
Synthetic sand is mixed in a manufacturing lab starting with a pure (SiO2) sand base. In this
case, the composition can be controlled more accurately, which imparts the casting sand
mixture with higher green strength, more permeability, and greater refractory strength. For
these reasons, synthetic sand is mostly preferred in sand casting manufacture.
Chemically coated sand

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

clean silica grains are sometimes coated with a non-thermosetting hydrocarbon resin, which act
as a binder. An additional binder in the form of clay can also be used. The advantage of this
sand is that the carbon in the resin which is an excellent refractory surrounds the sand grains
and does not allow the molten metal to reach the sand grains. This produces casting with clean
surface as the sand does not get fused in them. The moisture content in this sand is kept to
above 3%
Binder
 In sand casting, binders are used to hold the sand particles together. There are two types
(1)organic binder and (2) inorganic binder.
Among these two organic binders are mainly used for core baking.
 Other binders can be: Portland cement and sodium silicate.
 The percentage of binder in the moulding sand is of great importance.
 The bond must be strong enough to with stand the pressure of and erosion by the melt.
Additives
 Additives are added to the moulding sand to improve the properties like refractoriness,
permeability and strength of the moulding sand.
 These are helps to give good surface finish. Additives are not for binding purpose.
 There are various additives to meet the good surface finish.

Different types of Molding Sand

1. Green Sand
2. Dry Sand
3. Loam Sand
4. Facing Sand
5. Parting Sand
6. Backing or Floor Sand
7. System Sand
8. Core Sand
1. Green Sand
The green sand is the natural sand containing sufficient moisture in it. It is mixture of silica
and 15 to 30% clay with about 8% water. Clay and water act as a bonding material to give

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

strength. Molds made from this sand are known as green sand mould. The green sand is
used only for simple and rough casting products. It is used for both ferrous and non-ferrous
metals.
2. Dry Sand
When the moisture is removed from green sand, it is known as dry sand. The mould
produced by dry sand has greater strength, rigidity and thermal stability. This sand is used
for large and heavy castings.

3. Loam Sand
Loam sand is a mixture of 50 percent sand and 50 percent clay. Water is added in sufficient
amount. It is used for large and heavy moulds e.g., turbine parts, hoppers etc.
4. Facing Sand
A sand used for facing of the mould is known as facing sand. It consists of silica sand and
clay, without addition of used sand. It is used directly next to t he surface of the pattern.
Facing sand comes in direct contact with the hot molten metal; therefore it must have high
refractoriness and strength. It has very fine grains.
5. Parting Sand
A pure silica sand employed on the faces of the pattern before moulding is known as parting
sand. When the pattern is withdrawn from the mould, the moulding sand sticks to it. To
avoid sticking, parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern before it is embedded in the moulding
sand. Parting sand is also sprinkled on the contact surface of cope, drag and cheek.
6. Backing or Floor Sand
The backing sand is old and repeatedly used sand of black colour. It is used to back up the
facing sand and to fill the whole volume of the box. This sand is accumulated on the floor
after casting and hence also known as floor sand.
7. System Sand
The sand employed in mechanical heavy castings and has high strength, permeability and
refractoriness, is known as system sand. It is used for machine moulding to fill the whole
flask. In machine moulding no facing sand is used. The system sand is cleaned and has
special additives.
8. Core Sand

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

A sand used for making cores is known as core sand. It is silica sand mixed with core oil
(linseed oil, resin, mineral oil) and other binding materials (dextrine, corn flour, sodium
silicate). It has remarkable compressive strength.
Molding sand properties
The quality of the casting product is mainly depends on the quality of the molding sand.
Molding sand is must have the following requirements:
 It should be able to retain and reproduce the details as imparted by the pattern.
 It should be able to retain the bulk structure.
 It should not be too much sticky either to the pattern or to the casting.
 It should prevent reaction with the liquid metal.
 It should let the casting cool at an optimum rate so as to develop desired microstructure.
To achieve the above requirement, the moulding sand must have the following properties
 Permeability or porosity
 Plasticity or flowability
 Adhesiveness
 Cohesiveness or strength
 Refractoriness
 Collapsibility
1. Porosity or permeability
Porosity also known as permeability is the most important property of the moulding sand. It
is the ability of the moulding sand to allow gasses to pass through. Gasses and steam are
generated during the pouring of molten metal into the sand cavity.
[Link] or flowability
Flowability or plasticity is the ability of the sand to get compacted and behave like a fluid. It
will flow uniformly to all portions of pattern when rammed and distribute the ramming
pressure evenly all around in all directions.
[Link]
Adhesiveness is a property of molding sand to get the stick or adhere to foreign material such
sticking of molding sand with the inner wall of molding box.
[Link]

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Cohesiveness is property of molding sand by virtue which the sand grain particles interact and
attract each other within the molding sand. Thus, the binding capability of the molding sand
gets enhanced to increase the green, dry and hot strength property of molding and core sand.
[Link]
Refractoriness is defined as the ability of molding sand to withstand high temperatures
without breaking down or fusing thus facilitating to get sound casting. It is a highly important
characteristic of molding sands.

[Link]
After the molten metal in the mould gets solidified, the sand mould must be collapsible so
that free contraction of the metal occurs and this would naturally avoid the tearing or
cracking of the contracting metal.
Sand testing
The various sand testing methods
 Moisture Content Test
 Clay Content Test
 Hardness Test
 Permeability Test
 Grain fitness test
 Sand Mould Strength Test
Moisture Content Test
Moisture content may be determined by the loss of weight, after evaporation. A sample of
tempered sand weighing 50 gm. is dried at 110 to 115°C, and then cooled to room temperature
in desiccator and re- weighed. The difference in weight, before and after heating gives the
moisture content in the sample
Clay Content Test
Clay content is determined by finding the loss of weight after washing of sample. A 50 gm
sample of previously dried sand is weighed, placed in the mixing device and treated with a
standard sodium hydroxide solution consisting of 475 c.c. of water and 25 c.c. of NaOH

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

standard solution under controlled conditions. Such a testing apparatus consists of jar, which is
securely covered and sealed, and rotated at 60 rpm by electric motor for about an hour.
Hardness Test
Mould and core hardness can be found out by the hardness-tester, which is based on the same
principle as Brinell hardness tester. A steel ball of 50 mm diameter weighing 237 gm is pressed
on the mould surface. The depth of penetration of steel ball will give the hardness of mould
surface on the direct reading dial.

Permeability Test
Permeability test is carried out by using a permeability meter consisting of an aluminum
casting in the form of a water tank and a base. A balanced tank floats inside the water tank. A
specimen tube extends down to the specimen and opens into the air space. The sand specimen
is placed at the base and is sealed with mercury. Lowering of the floating tank makes air to
pass through the sand specimen. Air is passed through a nozzle to adjust the flow rate. For fine
sand, flow rate should be slow.
Grain fitness test (Sand Sieve Analysis)
The grain size, distribution, grain fitness are determined with the help of the fitness testing of
moulding sands. The apparatus consists of a number of standard sieves mounted one above the
other, on a power driven shaker. The shaker vibrates the sieves and the sand placed on the top
sieve gets screened and collects on different sieves depending upon the various sizes of grains
present in the moulding sand. The top sieve is coarsest and the bottom-most sieve is the finest
of all the sieves. In between sieve placed in order of fineness from top to bottom
Sand Mould Strength Test
The strength test is performed on the horizontal hydraulic press. The specimen of cylindrical
shape, whose strength is to be found out is placed on the lugs and pressure is applied, slowly
by hand wheel until the specimen breaks. The reading of the needle on high pressure and low
pressure manometer indicates the compressive strength of the specimen.
Core

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

 Cores are pieces that are placed into casting moulds to form internal cavities of the
casting.
 Cores can be made from metal or chemically bonded sand.
 It is inserted into the mould cavity prior to pouring.
 The molten metal flows and solidifies between the mould cavity and the core to form the
casting's external and internal surfaces.
Requirements of cores
 A good core must have sufficient strength and hardness to retain its shape and to resist
during the pouring of liquid metal.
 Sufficient permeability is also necessary for the escape of gases generated during the
casting process.
 Cores should be highly refractory to resist cracking on contact with high temperature
molten metal.
 A core should be capable of collapsing shortly after solidification.
Types of Core
 Horizontal core.
 Vertical core.
 Balanced core.
 Cover core or Hanging core
Horizontal core in casting
Horizontal core is one of the simplest core in casting. As the name suggests, the horizontal core
is placed in the horizontal direction in the core prints. The horizontal cores are mostly placed at
the parting line of the mould in such a way that one half of the core remains in the cope and
other half remains in the drag. The horizontal cores are generally in cylindrical shape, but other
shapes are also prepared as per requirements.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Vertical core in casting

Vertical cores are similar to horizontal cores, but the only difference is in their positions. The
vertical cores are placed in vertical direction in the sand mould. The tapers are provided on the
sand casting cores, so that it can be easily arranged without tearing the sand of cope and drag.

Balanced core in casting

In casting, the balanced cores are the cores which are supported only from the one end, and the
other end of the core is hanging. (See above image). The limitations of balanced core is that it
can be made of smaller lengths to avoid its breaking. Balanced cores are used to make holes in
horizontal direction in the casting. If the balanced core is longer in length, then it is supported
by using chaplets.

Drop core
Drop core (aka wing core or stop off core) are used when a cavity or a hole is not in line with
the parting surface. Drop cores are kept either above the parting line or below the parting line.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Cover core or Hanging core

Cover core is that type of core which is hanging vertically from the top and has no support from
the bottom. Hanging core is used when the entire mould is prepared in the drag only. As shown
in the image above, the entire mould is prepared by ramming the pattern in the mould and then
the upper part of the mould cavity is covered using a hanging core. This type of core requires a
passage from the top for the entry of the molten metal into the mould cavity

Casting Defects
Definition
 It is an unwanted irregularities that appear in the casting during metal casting process.
 There is various reason or sources which is responsible for the defects in the cast metal.
 Some of the defects produced may be neglected or tolerated and some are not
acceptable, it must be eliminated for better functioning of the parts.
Mismatch :
 The defect caused due to misalignment of upper and lower part of the casting and
misplacement of the core at parting line.
Cause :
 Improper alignment of upper and lower part during mold preparation.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Misalignment of flask (a flask is type of tool which is used to contain a mold in metal
casting. it may be square, round, rectangular or of any convenient shape.)
Swell
 It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten metal pressure, which
results in localised or overall enlargement of the casting.
Causes
(i) Defective or improper ramming of the mold
Blowholes:
 When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting due to solidifying metal, a rounded
or oval cavity is formed called as blowholes. These defects are always present in the
cope part of the mold.
Causes :
(i) Excessive moisture in the sand.
(ii) Low Permeability of the sand.
(iii) Sand grains are too fine.
(iv) Too hard rammed sand.
(v) Insufficient venting is provided.
Metal Penetration
 These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of the casting. When the
size of sand grains is larges, the molten fuses into the sand and solidifies giving us metal
penetration defect.
Causes
(i) It is caused due to low strength, large grain size, high permeability and soft ramming
of sand. Because of this the molten metal penetrates in the molding sand and we get
rough or uneven casting surface.
Shrinkage Cavity
 The formation of cavity in the casting due to volumetric contraction is called as
shrinkage cavity.
Causes
(i) Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of molten metal.
(ii) Pouring temperature is too high.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Slag Inclusion
 This defect is caused when the molten metal containing slag particles is poured in the
mold cavity and it gets solidifies.
Causes :
(i) The presence of slag in the molten metal
Misrun
 When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the mold cavity and leaves a
space in the mold called as misrun.
Causes:
(i) Low fluidity of the molten metal.
(ii) Low temperature of the molten metal which decreases its fluidity.
(iii) Too thin section and improper gating system.

Sand Holes
It is the holes created on the external surface or inside the casting. It occurs when loose sand
washes into the mold cavity and fuses into the interior of the casting or rapid pouring of the
molten metal.
Causes:
(i) Loose ramming of the sand.
(ii) Rapid pouring of the molten metal into the mold results in wash away of sand from the mold
and a hole is created.
(iii) Improper cleaning of the mold cavity
Fins
A thin projection of metal, not considered as a part of casting is called as fins or fin. It is usually
occurs at the parting of the mold or core section.
Causes:
(i) Incorrect assembling of mold and cores.
(ii) Insufficient weight of the mold or improper clamping of the flask may produce the
fins.
Cold Shut

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

It is a type of surface defects and a line on the surface can be seen. When the molten metal
enters into the mold from two gates and when these two streams of molten metal meet at a
junction with low temperatures than they do not fuse with each other and solidifies creating a
cold shut (appear as line on the casting). It looks like a crack with round edge.
Causes:
(i) Poor gating system
(ii) Low melting temperature
(iii) Lack of fluidity
CUPOLA FURNACE
For casting, metal has to be heated above its melting point. The heating is done in a furnace.
Depending upon the fuel used, the furnaces may be classified as electric, oil fired or coal fired
etc. Where metal free from any impurities is required, electric furnaces are used. In oil fired
and coal fired furnaces, the flame plays upon the hot metal and the molten metal picks up
impurities by coming in contact with flames. Electric furnaces are costly and equally costly to
operate. Usually, for non-ferrous metals and alloys, oil fired crucible furnaces are used.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

CUPOLA - CONSTRUCTION
For melting cast iron, a cupola furnace is used. It is one of the most economical and
convenient ways of providing a supply of molten cast iron. Cupola uses coke as fuel. Coke is
produced by heating ordinary steam coal in an inert atmosphere. It gives more intense heat than
coal. Cupola consists of a long cylindrical steel shell with its interior lined with refractory fire-
bricks.
It is erected vertically up and rests on short pillars about 0.85 metres above the ground level.
The bottom of the cupola is provided with steel doors which are also lined with fire resistant
material and covered with a layer of good quality sand. At a suitable height, near the top of
this steel shell, an opening is cut, which is used for charging fuel and raw materials into the
furnace. A wind box, connected to a motorised blower is provided at a height of one meter or
so above the bottom closing doors.
From this wind box, small air passages are provided into the cupola shell for supply of air to
aid combustion of fuel. These air passages are called tuyeres. At the bottom, above the door, a

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

tapping spout is provided to tap molten metal and about 350 mm above the tapping hole
another hole called the slag hole is provided at the back of the cupola, through which liquid
slag can be forced out under air pressure. The cylindrical space provided between the tap hole
and the slag hole is called the molten metal well in which the molten metal accumulates
between two-taps. All these features are depicted in Fig.
OPERATION OF CUPOLA
In the cupola the first operation is to repair the lining of the door and area around it and then
closing the hinged doors. Doors are jammed shut, so that there is no possibility of their
opening while the cupola is in operation. Then fire is lighted at the bottom with the help of
some wood and kerosene oil rags. When the fire is burning strongly, coke is added from the top
charging door until the height of coke bed reaches about half a metre above tuyeres. After that
tuyeres are opened partially, air blower is switched on and alternate layers of metal, flux (in the
form of limestone pieces) and coke are charged from the top. These alternate layers settle
down on coke bed. When the cupola is filled up to the level of charging door, the tuyeres are
opened fully and the heating of charge begins. The coke near the tuyeres start burning and the
coke bed becomes intensely hot.
The metal in lower layers near the coke bed starts melting. Lime stone breaks down to CaO
and CO2. The calcium oxide reacts with impurities like silica and other oxides forming slag
(CaSiO3). Slag is lighter and floats upon the molten metal layer. Ultimately, when enough
metal has melted, the slag is blown out by opening the slag hole. The metal is then tapped by
puncturing the tap hole with a long steel rod with one end shaped like a cone. The molten
metal will start flowing into the metal chute and is collected into ladles (refractory lined steel
buckets to which long handles are welded) and taken away for pouring into moulds. The tap
hole is then closed by plugging it with a lump of fire clay. After the day’s work is over, extra
coke is charged into the cupola along with last charge. After all the metal has melted, the air
blower is switched off and the bottom door of cupola is opened. Whatever unburnt coke etc., is
left, is allowed to fall to the ground beneath the cupola door.

BLAST FURNACE

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

It is large steel shell about 9 mt. in diameter which is lined with heat resistant bricks. It is set
on the top of brick foundation. There are four major parts of blast furnace from bottom to top
hearth, bosh, stack and top. The hearth acts as a storage region for molten metal and molten
slag. The charge of blast furnace possesses successive layers of iron ore, scrap, coke, and
limestone and some steel scrap which is fed from the top of the furnace. Iron ore exists as an
aggregate of iron-bearing minerals. These mineral aggregates are oxides of iron called
hematite, limonite, and magnetite. They all contribute to the smelting process. Hematite is a
red ore and contains about 70% iron.
Limonite is a hydrated oxide and contains about 60% iron. Magnetite is a magnetic oxide and
contains about 72% iron. It takes about 1.6 tons of iron ore, 0.65 ton of coke, 0.2 ton of lime-
stone and about 0.05 ton of scrap iron and steel to produce 1 ton of pig iron. For burning this
charge, about 4 tons of air is required. The impurities or other minerals are present in the ore.

These impurities may be silicon, of silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur present will determine the
purification process used in the manufacture of the steel. The output from the furnace in form
of pig iron is collected in large ladles from the tap hole existing at lower portion of furnace. As

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

the coke burns, aided by the air forced into the furnace, the ore melts and collects in the hearth.
As the melting process proceeds, the entire mass settles and thus makes room for the addition
of charges at the top. While the melting is going on, the limestone forms a slag with the
impurities. The second component which makes up the charge is the coke which is made from
coal. Coke must be dust proof, not too combustible, and strong, since it must support the
charge. It supplies the heat which reduces the ore and melts the iron. The iron picks up carbon
from the coke and impurities from the ore. The amount of carbon picked up by the iron is more
than is needed in the production of steel. The carbon becomes part of the pig iron used in the
making of steel. The control of this carbon during the subsequent processes determines the
properties of the steel. The manufacture of coke from bituminous coal is a distillation process.
The impurities are driven off leaving coke. The pig iron is then processed for purification work
for production of various kinds of iron and steel in form of ingots (large sections) using
different furnaces.
Molding Machine
Types of Molding machines
 Squeezers
 Jolt Machines
 Sand Slinging Machine
Squeezers
The working principle of a squeezer type moulding machine is shown in Fig. The pattern plate
is clamped on the machine table, and a flask is put into position. A sand frame is placed on the
flask, and both are then filled with sand from a hopper. Next, the machine table travels upward
to squeeze the sand between the pattern plate and a stationary squeeze head. The squeeze head
enters into the sand frame and compacts the sand so that it is level with the edge of the flask.
These machines rammed the sand harder at the back of the mould and softer on the pattern
face. Squeezer machines are very useful for shallow patterns.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Jolt Machines
In this machine sand is compressed through the application of compressed air or other suitable
force transmitted through a piston-table arrangement which squeezes the sand against a platen.
The ramming is best at the sand platen interface from where pressure is applied and not near
the pattern, whereas in Jolt machine the ramming is best around pattern. Therefore,
combination of jolting and squeezing gives best results and both the operations can be carried
out in a single machine called Jolt-squeeze molding machine (Fig. ). In pure squeezing, both
the parts of the mould could be formed at the same time if the depth is not too great. It is
generally limited to rather shallow work.

Sand Slinging Machine

In this machine the molding sand is thrown by impeller device which causes packing of the
sand into the flask through inertia. In this method the sand density is most uniform at all the

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

levels and it is, therefore, best suited method for any type of mould. The density can be
controlled by changing the speed of the impeller which normally varies between 1200 and
1800 R.P.M. However it is best adapted to work ranging from medium to very large size. The
machine is generally available in various capacities with sand moving at a speed of about 3000
m/min. The molding sand should be mixed with suitable binders etc., so that it can flow into
place readily and afterwards binder should become hard.

Special Casting Processes

The sand moulds may be used for casting ferrous and non-ferrous metals, but these moulds can
be used only once, because the mould is destroyed after the metal has solidified. This will
increase the cost of production. The sand moulds also, can not maintain the tolerance and
smooth surface finish. In order to meet these requirements, Special casting processes have been
developed. Types of Special Casting Processes
 Shell Moulding
 Investment Casting
 Ceramic mould
 Pressure die casting
 Centrifugal Casting
 CO2process
 Stir castings

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Shell Moulding
Shell mold casting process uses a mold like a shell, which is made by the mixture of sand and
resin. This mold is light weighted and have high strength which makes it suitable for
automatic casting. This process is suitable for both ferrous and non-ferrous casting but it is
mostly used for steel. The first is pattern making. This pattern is made by either aluminium of
cast iron. The metal pattern is now heated at a temperature range between 180 – 250 degree
centigrade. After heating, a small layer of lubricant (Mosltly Silicon) sprayed over metallic
pattern which allows easy removal of metallic pattern from shell. Pattern is clamped over a
dump box. Now this assembly is turned face down.
A mixture of sand and resin is filled into dump box. Mostly fine grade green sand is used for
mixture. Now this whole assemble is inverted which allow to sand resin mixture fall over
heated pattern. A layer of mixture, which is in direct contact with pattern is become hard and
form a shell. The thickness of shell is mostly depends on the temperature of the pattern and
time duration of contact. Now the dump box is again inverted which allow to remove extra
sand resin mixture. After it, metallic pattern is removed from dump box and shell is separated
from it. The other half of the mold is also created using same technique. This step assemble all
shells created by the shell moulding. The all required shell assembled into a flask and
supported by a baking material. All desirable part like cores, runner, riser etc. are attached to it.
Now the cavity is filled with a molten metal and allow to solidify. After solidification the metal
cast is removed by breaking the shell. The casting formed by this process is highly accurate
and well finished.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Investment Casting
The first step in investment casting is to manufacture the wax pattern for the process. Several
wax patterns may be combined for a single casting This is done by attaching the wax patterns to
a wax bar, the bar serves as a central sprue. A ceramic pouring cup is attached to the end of the
bar. This arrangement is called a tree. The metal casting pattern is then dipped in a refractory
slurry. A ceramic layer is obtained over the surface of the pattern. The pattern is then repeatedly
dipped into the slurry to increase the thickness of the ceramic coat. The hardened ceramic mold
is turned upside down and heated. This causes the wax to flow out of the mold, leaving the
cavity for the metal casting. Now the desired molten metal is poured into the pre-heated mold
cavity. After pouring of the molten metal into the mold, the casting is allowed to set as the
solidification process takes place.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Ceramic Mould Casting

Principle of Ceramic Mould Casting
The Mould is made of Plaster of Paris (Gypsum or CaSO4 1/2 H2O) with the addition of talc
and Silica flour to improve strength and to control the time required for the plaster to set. These

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

components are mixed with water and the resulting slurry is poured over the Pattern. After
removing the pattern, mould is cured in an oven and it is ready to receive the molten metal.
Procedure of Ceramic Mould Casting
A reusable pattern is placed inside a slightly tapered flask, and slurry like mixture of refractory
aggregate, hydrolyzed ethyl silicate, alcohol, and a getting agent is poured on top. This mixture
sets to a rubbery state that permits removal of the pattern and the flask, and the mould surface is
then ignited with a torch (in an oven for heating to about 100 C). The patterns used are split
gated metal patterns usually mounted on a match plate. The slurry is applied over the pattern
surfaces to form a thin coating around it. The slurry fills up all cavities and recesses by itself
and no naming or vibration of the mould is required. The pattern is withdrawn after it sets in
about 3 to 5 minutes.

Die casting
Die casting is an efficient method of creating a broad range of shapes, die castings are one of the
most mass produced components today . Many toy cars use die casting in their production, as
do real vehicles. Die casting offers high accuracy in its products with a good quality surface
finish. The Process Die casting first requires the creation of a steel mould (called a ‘die’) of the
part to be cast, these moulds once created are fitted to the die casting machine and injected
under pressure with the desired molten metal or alloy of choice. Hot chamber casting machines
use an oil or gas powered piston to drive the molten metal heated within the machine into the
die.
The piston pulls back allowing the molten metal to fill what is called the “goose neck” once the
liquid metal has filled the goose neck the piston can then force the liquid metal into the die. The
clamping force used to inject the metals can range from 400-4000 tons. This method has fast
cycle times which can be as low as seconds when producing small parts.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

centrifugal casting
Centrifugal castings are the process of casting in which centrifugal force is used for the casting
process. In centrifugal casting molten metal is introduced into the mold which is continuously
rotated during the whole casting process. The mold can itself be rotated horizontally or
vertically depending upon the design requirements. Once poured it is then continued to rotate
about its central axis.
Due to the rotational motion of the mold; a centrifugal force is acted upon the molten metal just
poured into the spinning mold. This force displaces the molten metals towards the periphery
forcing them to deposit on the walls. The molten metal is spread uniformly on to the walls of
the die.

Carbon dioxide molding

Carbon dioxide molding is a sand casting process that employs a molding mixture of sand and
liquid silicate binder. The molding mixture is then hardened by blowing carbon dioxide gas
through it. The Mold for CO2 Casting is made of a mixture of sand and liquid silicate binder
which is hardened by passing CO2 gas over the mold. The equipment of the molding process
includes CO2 cylinder, regulator, hoses and hand held applicator gun or nozzle. Carbon di
oxide molding delivers great accuracy in production.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering

 Manufacturing Processes /Unit - I/ Metal Casting Processes

Stir casting
Stir casting is one of the most popular and widely used method in which material formation
(mainly Metal Alloys and Metal Matrix Composites) is done by melting metals and casting
them into suitable shapes and sizes by pouring them into cavities. Stir casting setup as shown in
Figure. consist of a furnace, reinforcement feeder and mechanical stirrer. The furnace is used to
heating and melting of the materials. The bottom poring furnace is more suitable for the stir
casting as after stirring of the mixed slurry instant poring is required to avoid the settling of the
solid particles in the bottom the crucible.
The mechanical stirrer is used to form the vortex which leads the mixing of the reinforcement
material which are introduced in the melt. Stirrer consist of the stirring rod and the impeller
blade. The impeller blade may be of, various geometry and various number of blades. Flat
blade with three number are the preferred as it leads to axial flow pattern in the crucible with
less power consumption. This stirrer is connected to the variable speed motors, the rotation
speed of the stirrer is controlled by the regulator attached with the motor.
Further, the feeder is attached with the furnace and used to feed the reinforcement powder in
the melt. A permanent mold, sand mold or a lost-wax mold can be used for pouring the mixed
slurry.

Panimalar Engineering College/Department of Mechanical Engineering