ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

MODULE 3
Part 1
AIR

Material Prepared by:

Mr Srinidhi S U
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Atria Institute of Technology

Prof Srinidhi S U, 2022|Module 3 - Air & Minerals Page | 1

 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Module 3: Air and Minerals

Air: Introduction, composition, sources and classification of air pollutants, National Ambient Air
quality standards (NAAQS), Air quality index, effects of air pollution on human health.
Economic effects of air pollution. Control of air pollution by equipment, smoke and its control.
Ozone depletion impacts, photochemical changes.
Minerals and rocks: Minerals, important rock forming minerals like Quartz, Mica, Feldspar and
Amphibole, lithification & metamorphism, weathering: physical, biogeochemical processes,
erosion, agent of erosion

Air

Air is a non-homogeneous mixture of different gases in the atmosphere.

The composition of air refers to the chemical composition of the troposphere. The troposphere is
the lowest layer of the atmosphere, extending from the surface to about 12 km or 39000 ft. The
troposphere contains about 80% of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere. Nearly all of the
atmosphere’s water vapor exists in this layer. Just three gases account for 99% of dry
air: nitrogen, oxygen, and argon.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Air pollution
Means the presence in the atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in such quantities and of
such duration as is or tends to be injurious to human health or welfare, animal or plant life, or
property, or would unreasonably interfere with the enjoyment of life or property.
Air pollution may be defined as the
presence in the air (outdoor atmosphere) of one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in
such quantities and of such durations as may be or tend to be injurious to human, animal or
plant life, or property, or which unreasonably interferes with the comfortable enjoyment of life
or property or conduct of business.
 Air pollutants come in the form of gases and finely divided solid and liquid aerosols.
 Aerosols are loosely defined as “any solid or liquid particles suspended in the air”

Air Pollutant
 A pollutant can be solid (large or sub-molecular), liquid or gas .
 It may originate from a natural or anthropogenic source (or both).
 It is estimated that anthropogenic sources have changed the composition of global air by
less than 0.01%.
 Examples of “natural” air pollution include:

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

 Ash,
 salt particles,
 pollen and spores,
 smoke and
 windblown dust

Sources and Classification of Air Pollution

The air pollutants can be classified in many ways as shown below:-

1. According to origin:
The air pollutants are classified into:

Primary pollutants:
The pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources produced by natural
events ( eg: dust storms and volcanic eruptions) and human activities (eg: emissions
from vehicles, industries etc.) are called primary pollutants. Eg: smoke, dust, oxides of
sulphur & nitrogen, hydrocarbons and particulate matter etc.

Secondary pollutants:

The pollutants that are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions between
primary pollutants and atmospheric constituents are known as secondary pollutants. Eg.
Sulphur trioxide, ozone, ketones, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid etc.

2. According to state of matter:

The pollutants are classified into:-

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Gaseous air pollutants:

These pollutants exist in a gaseous state at normal temperature and pressure. They are
carbon dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur oxides etc.

Particulate air pollutants:

These are not gaseous substances. They are suspended droplets, solid particles or
mixtures of the two.

3. According to sources:
Pollutants originate from
Natural sources:
These include volcanic eruptions, deflation of sand and dust, forest or wild fires of
natural vegetation, sulphur springs, natural geysers, organic and inorganic decays,
vegetative decays, marsh gases, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, photochemical
reactions, soil debris etc. Wild animals in their natural habitat are also considered
natural sources of pollution – decomposition gases, waste

Man-made sources:
These include human activities such as industries, factories, urban centres, aircraft,
nuclear experiments, automobiles, agriculture, domestic burning of wood and burning
of fossil fuels, deforestation, mining, waste treatment plants and power plants.

Sources of Air Pollution - contd

Stationary Sources
 A stationary source of air pollution refers to an emission source that does not move
(i.e., power plants, chemical and manufacturing industries).
 Often stationary sources are defined as large emitters who release relatively consistent
qualities and quantities of pollutants.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

POINT SOURCE
 Point sources include-
 industrial and nonindustrial stationary equipment or processes considered significant
sources of air pollution emissions.
 A facility is considered to have significant emissions if it emits about one ton or more in
a calendar year.
 Point sources include-
 industrial and nonindustrial stationary equipment or processes considered significant
sources of air pollution emissions.
 A facility is considered to have significant emissions if it emits about one ton or more in
a calendar year.

Area Sources
 The term AREA SOURCE is used to describe the many smaller stationary sources
located together whose individual emissions may be low but whose collective emissions
can be significant.
 Typically area sources are those that emit < 25 tons per year of any combination of
hazardous air pollutants, or < 10 tons per year of any single hazardous air pollutant.
Examples
 locomotives operating within a railyard
 Multiple flue gas stacks within a single industrial plant
 Open burning and forest fires
 Evaporation losses from large spills of volatile liquids
 Area sources that may fall under the “point source” definition are piping leaks, industrial
wastewater treatment ponds, rock and quarry operations, and tank farms.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Factors that affect air pollution

 Emissions (traffic, industrial, domestic)
 Geography (terrain)
 Weather conditions (rain, winds, humidity)
 Season
 Time of day
 Population density
 Indoor vs outdoor

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS)

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Ambient air quality refers to the condition or quality of the outdoor air. NAAQs are the standards for
ambient air quality with reference to various identified pollutant notified by the CPCB under the Air
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981. Major objectives of NAAQS are:

(i) to indicate necessary air quality levels and appropriate margins required to ensure the
protection of vegetation, health, and property,
(ii) to provide a uniform yardstick for the assessment of air quality at the national level
and
(iii) to indicate the extent and need of the monitoring programme.

Annual standards are basically the annual arithmetic mean of a minimum 104 measurements in a
year, at a particular site taken twice a week, at a uniform 24-hourly interval and at either a 24
hourly, 8 hourly, or 1 hourly monitored values, as applicable, shall be complied with 98% of the
time in a year. However, there is a 2% chance of exceeding the limits but not on two consecutive
days of monitoring.

Air Quality Index

The AQI was launched by the Prime Minister in April, 2015 starting with 14 cities and now
extended to 71 cities in 17 states. The AQI is a tool for the effective communication of air
quality status to people in terms, which are easy to understand. It transforms complex air quality
data of various pollutants into a single number (index value), nomenclature and colour. There are
six AQI categories, namely, good, satisfactory, moderately polluted, poor, very poor, and severe.
Each of these categories is decided based on the ambient concentration values of air pollutants
and their likely health impacts (known as health breakpoints). The AQ sub-index and health
breakpoints are evolved for eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Lead
(Pb)) for which short-term (upto 24-hours) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are
prescribed. Based on the measured ambient concentrations of a pollutant, a sub-index is

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

calculated, which is a linear function of concentration (e.g., the subindex for PM2.5 will be 51 at
concentration 31 μg/m3, 100 at concentration 60 μg/ m3, and 75 at concentration of 45 μg/m3 ).
The worst sub-index determines the overall AQI.

Effect of Air Pollution on human health

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Human respiratory system

Tobacco smoke. Tobacco smoke generates a wide range of harmful chemicals and is a major
cause for health illness, which known to cause for cancer. It is well-known that smoking
affects the passive smoker (the person who is in the vicinity of a smoker and is not
himself/herself a smoker) ranging from burning sensation in the eyes or nose, and throat
irritation, to cancer, bronchitis, severe asthma, and a decrease in lung function.

Biological pollutants. These are mostly allergens that can cause asthma, hay fever, and other
allergic diseases.

Volatile organic compounds. Volatile compounds can cause irritation of the eye, nose and
throat. In severe cases there may be headaches, nausea, and loss of coordination. In the
longer run, some of them are suspected to cause damage to the liver and other parts of the
body.

Formaldehyde. Exposure causes irritation to the eyes, nose and may cause allergies in some
people.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Lead. Prolonged exposure can cause damage to the nervous system, digestive problems, and
in some cases cause cancer. It is especially hazardous to small children.

Radon. A radioactive gas that can accumulate inside the house, it originates from the rocks
and soil under the house and its level is dominated by the outdoor air and also to some extent
the other gases being emitted indoors. Exposure to this gas increases the risk of lung cancer.

Ozone. Exposure to this gas makes our eyes itch, burn, and it has also been associated with
increase in respiratory disorders such as asthma. It lowers our resistance to colds and
pneumonia.

Oxides of nitrogen. This gas can make children susceptible to respiratory diseases in the
winters.

Carbon monoxide. CO (carbon monoxide) combines with hemoglobin to lessen the amount
of oxygen that enters our blood through our lungs. The binding with other proteins causes
changes in the function of the affected organs such as the brain and the cardiovascular
system, and also the developing fetus. It can impair our concentration, slow our reflexes, and
make us confused and sleepy.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Sulphur dioxide. SO2 (sulphur dioxide) in the air is caused due to the rise in combustion of
fossil fuels. It can oxidize and form sulphuric acid mist. SO 2 in the air leads to diseases of the
lung and other lung disorders such as wheezing and shortness of breath. Long-term effects
are more difficult to ascertain as SO2 exposure is often combined with that of SPM.

SPM (suspended particulate matter). Suspended matter consists of dust, fumes, mist and
smoke. The main chemical component of SPM that is of major concern is lead, others being
nickel, arsenic, and those present in diesel exhaust. These particles when breathe in, lodge in
our lung tissues and cause lung damage and respiratory problems.
The importance of SPM as a major pollutant needs special emphasis as
a) It affects more people globally than any other pollutant on a continuing basis.
b) There is more monitoring data available on this than any other pollutant.
c) More epidemiological evidence has been collected on the exposure to this than
to any other pollutant.

Economic Effect of Air Pollution

Air pollution already affects human health, agriculture and leads to a range of other
impacts. These impacts are projected to become much more severe in the coming
decades. Rising emissions of air pollutants are projected to lead to higher concentrations
of particulate matter (PM2.5) and ground level ozone. In several regions of the world,
average concentrations of PM2.5 and ozone are already well above the levels
recommended by the WHO Air quality guidelines. The market impacts of outdoor air
pollution, which include impacts on labour productivity, health expenditures and
agricultural crop yields, are projected to lead to global economic costs that gradually
increase to 1% of global GDP by 2060.
The projected increase in concentrations of PM2.5 and ozone will in turn lead to
substantial effects on the economy. According to the calculations in this report, global air
pollution-related healthcare costs are projected to increase from USD 21 billion (using
constant 2010 USD and PPP exchange rates) in 2015 to USD 176 billion 2005 in 2060.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

By 2060, the annual number of lost working days, which affect labour productivity, are
projected to reach 3.7 billion (currently around 1.2 billion) at the global level.
The most dangerous consequences from outdoor air pollution are related to the number of
premature deaths. This report projects an increase in the number of premature deaths due
to outdoor air pollution from approximately 3 million people in 2010, in line with the
latest Global Burden of Disease estimates, to 6-9 million annually in 2060. A large
number of deaths occur in densely populated regions with high concentrations of PM2.5
and ozone, especially China and India, and in regions with aging populations, such as
China and Eastern Europe
The annual global welfare costs associated with the premature deaths from outdoor air
pollution, calculated using estimates of the individual willingness-topay to reduce the risk
of premature death, are projected to rise from USD 3 trillion in 2015 to USD 18-25
trillion in 2060. In addition, the annual global welfare costs associated with pain and
suffering from illness are projected to be around USD 2.2 trillion by 2060, up from
around USD 300 billion in 2015, based on results from studies valuating the willingness-
to-pay to reduce health risks.
• Policies to limit air pollution emissions would lead to an improvement in air quality,
reduce risks of very severe health impacts, and, if properly implemented, generate
considerable climate co-benefits.
Other effects are corrosion of metals, soiling and eroding of building surfaces, fading of
dyed materials rubber cracking, spoiling or destruction of vegetation effects on animals,
as well as interference with production and services
Building materials are corroded and disfigured by air pollutants. Smoke and aerosols adhere
to stone, brick, and other building surfaces to produce unsightly coatings. Sulphur dioxide
and sulphur trioxide in the presence of moisture can react with limestone (CaCO₃) to form
calcium sulphate (CaSO₄) and gypsum (CaSo₄, 2H₂O). This acid converts limestone into a
water-soluble bicarbonate, which is then leached away. Staining of building stone by sulphur
compounds and particulars requires additional cleaning expense.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Paints

Areas of high pollution require more frequent painting. Air pollutants may damage the
protective coating and by exposing the underlying surface to attack.

Textiles

Sulphur oxides cause deterioration of natural and some synthetic textile fibres. The most
common form of permanent damage to textiles has been the deterioration of nylon hose.

Rubber

The main affected areas are the side walls of tyres and various forms of electrical insulation.
This type of damage is caused by ozone.

Leather

Sulphur dioxide causes leather in lose much of its strength and ultimately disintegrate.

Paper

The small amounts of metallic impurities in ‘modern’ paper accelerate the conversion of
absorbed sulphuric dioxide to sulphuric acid, in the presence of moisture.

Glass and Ceramics

During a long exposure for three years, porcelain enamels showed a change in their surface
appearance. Moisture and atmospheric pollution by acidic substances seems to have played a
major role in surface degradation.

Electronics Industry

Air pollutants cause thin insulating film to develop on contacts resulting in open circuits and
malfunctioning of the equipment.

Vegetation

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Damage to vegetation as a result of air pollution is a very important aspect of economic loss
due to air pollution.

Intangible Loss

Another very important economic repercussion of air pollution is the intangible loss due to
great damage to art objects throughout the world including our county. For example, effects
on the Taj Mahal (Agra), Sri Channakeshava Temple (Belur), and Parthenon (Athens).

Air pollution control devices

Air pollution control devices are a series of devices that work to prevent a variety of
different pollutants, both gaseous and solid, from entering the atmosphere primarily out of
industrial smokestacks. These control devices can be separated into two broad categories -
devices that control the amount of particulate matter escaping into the environment and
devices that control acidic gas emissions. It is important to understand that the extraction
methods for each specific type of pollutant can differ, so the only the major methods are
discussed. Although complex, these devices have shown to be effective in the past with the
overall levels of emissions for many pollutants dropping with the implementation of these
control devices.

Control of Particulate Matter

Specific machinery is used to remove particulate matter from flue gases. Much of this
separation uses physical means of separation and not chemical separation techniques simply
because particulate matter is large enough to be "caught" in this manner. Below are some of
the basic ways that particulate matter can be extracted.

1. Electrostatic Precipitators
2. Cyclone Separators
3. Fabric Filters

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

1. Electrostatic Precipitators:
An electrostatic precipitator is a type of filter that uses static electricity to
remove soot and ash from exhaust fumes before they exit the smokestacks. Unburned
particles of carbon in smoke are pulled out of the smoke by using static electricity in the
precipitators, leaving clean, hot air to escape the smokestacks. It is vital to remove this
unreacted carbon from the smoke, as it can damage buildings and harm human health -
especially respiratory health.

A model of an electrostatic precipitator using metal wires as the negative electrodes and
large plates as the positive electrodes

2. Cyclone Separators

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

A cyclone separator is a separation device that uses the principle of inertia to remove
particulate matter from flue gases. In these separators, dirty flue gas enters a chamber
containing a vortex, similar to a tornado. Because of the difference in inertia of gas
particles and larger particulate matter, the gas particles move up the cylinder while larger
particles hit the inside wall and drop down. This separates the particulate matter from the
flue gas, leaving cleaned flue gas.

3. Fabric Filters
Fabric filters are one fairly simple method that can be used to remove dust from flue
gases. In some gases they can also remove acidic gases if they utilize basic compounds.
This method simply uses some sort of fabric - generally felt is used as a woven cloth
would allow dust to make its way through - is placed so that flue gasses must pass
through it before exiting the smokestacks. When the gas passes through, dust particles are
trapped in the cloth

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Gas Control
More intense chemical methods of separation are generally required to separate polluting
gases from the flue gas. However, this extraction is important as many acidic gases in
flue gas contribute to acid rain. Below are some of the basic ways that gases can be
extracted.
1. Scrubbers
2. Incineration
3. Carbon Capture

1. Scrubbers
Scrubbers are a type of system that is used to remove harmful materials from
industrial exhaust gases before they are released into the environment. These
pollutants are generally gaseous, and when scrubbers are used to specifically
remove SOx it is referred to as flue gas desulfurization. There are two main types of
scrubbers, wet scrubbers and dry scrubbers. The main difference is in the type of
material used to remove the gases. By removing acidic gases from the exhaust before
it is released into the sky, scrubbers help prevent the formation of acid rain.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

There are two main ways to scrub pollutants out of exhaust, and they are:

 Wet Scrubbing: The removal of harmful components of exhausted flue gases by spraying
a liquid substance through the gas.
 Dry Scrubbing: The removal of harmful components of exhausted flue gases by introducing
a solid substance to the gas - generally in powdered form.

2. Incineration
Incineration is used to convert VOC emissions into carbon
dioxide and water through combustion. The incineration generally takes place in a specialized
piece of equipment known as an afterburner, which is built to create the conditions necessary for
complete combustion (such as sufficient burn time and a high temperature). Additionally, the
incinerated gas must be mixed to ensure complete combustion.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

3. Carbon Capture
Carbon dioxide can theoretically also be captured and stored underground or in
forests and oceans to prevent it from entering the atmosphere. Carbon capture and
storage refers to the process of capturing this carbon dioxide and storing it below
ground, pumping it into geologic layers. This process is rarely being used, but is
talked about extensively as a way to limit greenhouse gas emissions leading
to climate change.

Ozone Depletion
 Ozone layer is an umbrella 24 km [15 miles] from earth surface, an essential component
of the stratosphere that absorbs short wavelength ultraviolet radiation from the sun,
heating the gases of the stratosphere in the process.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

 This is the reason temperatures rise with increasing altitude in the stratosphere, and also
the reason life was able to move out of the oceans and on to the land, evolving into the
diverse biosphere we know today.
 World ozone day is celebrated on Sept, 16 of every year. Stratospheric ozone is measured
in Dobson units [DU] named after G.M.B Dobson who pioneered the study;
[I Dobson unit = 0.01 mm thickness of stratospheric ozone],
 Average ozone thickness in stratosphere is 300 DU, & when it falls below 200 DU, it’s
considered as Ozone hole. It is thinnest around equator and thickest near poles.
Causes of Ozone Depletion
 Ozone depletion is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) and other
ozone-depleting substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating
foams, and solvents.
 Although CFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a
process that can take as long as 2 to 5 years.
 When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the sun causes them to
break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical cycles
of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart
more than 100,000 ozone molecules.
Effects

 Effect of ozone hole include cataract, genetic mutation, constriction of blood vessels,
reduced crop yield, leukemia, breast cancer, damage to crop, aqua culture, etc.,

 The higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone is generally accepted to be a

contributory factor to skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased
tropospheric ozone, which is a health risk to humans. The increased surface UV also
represents an increase in the vitamin D synthetic capacity of the sunlight.

 It should be deduced that the above impacts are not due to exposure of Ozone but due to
the UV rays that have reached the earth surface through the ozone holes. One important

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

health hazard is Snow Blindness [photo keratosis], i.e., inflammation of cornea (outer
coating of eyeball).

 The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas
have been strongly linked to UVB exposure. Another form of skin cancer, malignant
melanoma, is much less common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15% -
20% of the cases diagnosed.

Control Measures

 The results of 18-year study of the ozone column over Antarctica [1st spotted, 1979]
showing that the ozone column had decreased from 1957 to 1985, a 35% decrease.
 This report led through several regulatory steps to the Montreal Protocol, an international
agreement signed by 139 nations, banning the production of CFCs by the year 2000.
In 1978, the use of CFC propellants in spray cans was banned in the U.S. In the 1980s,
the Antarctic "ozone hole" appeared and an international science assessment more
strongly linked the release of CFCs and ozone depletion. It became evident that a
stronger worldwide response was needed.
 In 1987, the Montreal Protocol was signed and the signatory nations committed
themselves to a reduction in the use of CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances. Since
that time, the treaty has been amended to ban CFC production after 1995 in the developed
countries, and later in developing. Today, over 160 countries have signed the treaty.
 We can't make enough ozone to replace what's been destroyed, but provided that we stop
producing ozone-depleting substances, natural ozone production reactions should return
the ozone layer to normal levels by about 2050.
 It is very important that the world comply with the Montreal Protocol; delays in ending
production could result in additional damage and prolong the ozone layer's recovery.
 Control mechanism stresses on replacement of the banned chemical by ammonia, steam,
helium etc.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

MODULE 3
Part 2
Minerals and Rocks

Material Prepared by:

Mr Srinidhi S U
Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Atria Institute of Technology

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Module 3: Minerals and Rocks

Minerals and rocks: Minerals, important rock forming minerals like Quartz, Mica, Feldspar and
Amphibole, lithification & metamorphism, weathering: physical, biogeochemical processes,
erosion, agent of erosion
.

Minerals

Minerals are strictly defined as naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds formed as a product
of inorganic processes (Hurlbut, 1963). Rocks are composed of an assemblage of one or more distinct
minerals. This definition of minerals excludes shells, coral, and other organically formed matter which
nonetheless are important constituents of some limestones

Mineral Types. Minerals can be separated into groups on the basis of chemical composition

i. Elements. This group consists of chemical elements that occur in nature in an

uncombined state. Examples are sulfur, graphite, and gold.
ii. Sulfides. Included in this group are combinations of various metallic elements with
sulfur. An example is pyrite.
iii. Oxides. The minerals in this group contain a metal element in combination with
oxygen. The iron mineral hematite is an example. A subgroup within the oxides is the
hydroxides, which include oxygen in the form of the hydroxyl radical or water.
Limonite is an example of a hydroxide.
iv. Halides. Halides are naturally occurring chlorides, fluorides, bromides, and iodides.
Examples are halite (rock salt) and fluorite.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

v. Carbonates. The carbonate group of minerals contains the carbonate radical. The
common minerals calcite and dolomite are included here.
vi. Phosphates. Minerals whose composition includes the phosphate radical are included
in this group. One example is apatite.
vii. Sulfates. These minerals include the sulfate radical. Gypsum is an example of a
common sulfate mineral. Silicates.
viii. Silicates form the largest group of minerals. They contain various elements in
combination with silicon and oxygen. Examples are quartz and feldspar.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Mineral Characteristics

Although there are thousands of minerals in Earth, there are only about 20 common minerals.
The same mineral found in different parts of the world will always look the same and will have a
characteristic crystal form and a consistent chemical formula.

1. Hardness – minerals ranked by their relative hardness using Mohs Hardness Scale
− Harder minerals can scratch softer minerals

− Softer minerals more likely to break down at Earth’s surface

− More resistant minerals more likely to be preserved (e.g., quartz sand on beaches)

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

2. Color: Minerals come in a variety of colors Examples of common dark-colored minerals

(black, dark brown, dark green) are amphibole, olivine, pyroxene, biotite mica. Light-
colored minerals (white, pink, gray, translucent) are represented by quartz, feldspar
(orthoclase, plagioclase), muscovite mica, gypsum, halite, calcite. However, we must be
careful in using color to identify minerals because some minerals can be found in a wide
range of colors

3. Crystal Form: Minerals form crystals with specific shapes when they have been able to
grow without obstruction. Common shapes are prisms, pyramids, needles, cubes, and
sheets.

4. Cleavage Minerals break along specific planes of weakness related to their atomic
structure. Amphibole’s cleavage planes intersect at 120 degrees; pyroxene has a
distinctive 90 degree cleavage intersection. Quartz has no cleavage planes but fractures
irregularly

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

5. Luster Characteristics of light reflected from mineral is luster . Types of luster include
earthy, silky, glassy, and metallic

6. Streak Minerals will leave a mark when pulled across an unglazed porcelain streak plate
(Fig. 13). The streak represents the mineral in powdered form and is often constant even
when mineral color changes. This property is most useful for metallic minerals that leave
a dark-colored streak

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Rocks:

Rocks consist of an assemblage of minerals. They are classified according to this assemblage, the
mineral proportions, and the conditions under which the rock was formed.

Rocks are formed in three basic ways resulting in the following classes:

• Igneous rocks: Formed by hardening or crystallization of high-temperature, molten material

(magma).

Igneous rocks are formed from solidification and cooling of magma. This magma can be derived
from partial melts of pre-existing rocks in either a planet's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting
of rocks is caused by one or more of three processes namely; an increase in temperature, a
decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Igneous comes from word “ignis” meaning
fire, it is therefore not surprising that igneous rocks are associated with volcanic activity and
their distribution is controlled by plate tectonics

Igneous rocks are divided into two main categories:

 Plutonic (intrusive) rock and volcanic (extrusive). Plutonic or intrusive rocks result when
magma cools and crystallizes slowly within the Earth's crust. A common example of this
type is granite.
 Volcanic or extrusive rocks result from magma reaching the surface either as lava or
fragmental ejecta, forming rocks such as pumice or basalt.
Examples

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

• Sedimentary rocks: Formed by solidification of material deposited by wind, water, glaciers, or

direct chemical precipitation. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposition of material at the
Earth's surface and (or) within bodies of water. Sedimentation is the collective name for
processes that cause mineral and/or organic particles (detritus) to settle and accumulate or
minerals to precipitate from a solution. Sediments can be detrital, chemical or organic sediments.
Detrital sediments are mechanically eroded from pre-existing rocks. Chemical sediments on the
other hand are fluid precipitates or evaporates deposited in various environments. Sedimentary
rocks are important in regard to resources like limestone deposits, coal and oil. They are also
important geologically in interpretation of earth’s history

• Metamorphic rocks: Formed by modification of previously existing rocks by the application

of heat and / or pressure within the earth.

Metamorphic rocks are basically rocks that have experience change due to high pressure and
temperature. Protolith refers to the original rock, prior to metamorphism. In low grade
metamorphic rocks, original textures are often preserved allowing one to determine the likely
protolith. As the grade of metamorphism increases, original textures are replaced with
metamorphic textures and other clues, such as bulk chemical composition of the rock, are used to
determine the protolith.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Some Important Minerals

1. Feldspar

Feldspar is the mineral name given to a group of minerals distinguished by the presence
of aluminum (Al) and the silica ion (SiO4) in their chemistry. This group includes
aluminum silicates of soda (sodium oxide), potassium (potassium oxide), or lime
(calcium oxide). Feldspar is the single most abundant mineral group on Earth. Together,
the varieties of feldspar account for one half of the Earth's crust. The minerals included in
this group are orthoclase, microcline, and the plagioclase feldspars. They form in a
variety of thermal environments, during the crystallization of liquid rock (magma), by
metamorphism of rocks deep in the earth, and in sedimentary processes.

Feldspars are relatively hard at 6 on Moh's hardness scale. Feldspars are generally light-
colored, including white, pink, tan, green, or gray. The color varies due to impurities
within the crystal structure. Feldspar is the mineral that gives granite its pink, green or
gray color.

When feldspar weathers from igneous or metamorphic rocks, it can accumulate as sand.
It is, however, easily weathered, and eventually will break down into clay.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

The United States produces about $45 million worth of feldspar annually. North Carolina
generates nearly half of the raw feldspar produced in the United States. Six other states
produce smaller amounts. Other countries producing feldspar include Brazil, Colombia,
France, Germany, India, Mexico, Norway and Spain.

Uses

Feldspar is used to make dinnerware and bathroom and building tiles. In ceramics and
glass production, feldspar is used as a flux. A flux is a material that lowers the melting
temperature of another material, in this case, glass.

Mica

The mica group comprises 34 silicate minerals that have a layered or platy texture; large flakes
and sheets are found in some metamorphic and igneous rocks. The commercially important
micas are muscovite and phlogopite. Mica is stable when exposed to electricity, light, moisture,
and extreme temperatures. Mica sheets are chemically inert, dielectric, insulating, lightweight,
reflective, refractive, resilient, and transparent to opaque

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Uses

Sheet mica is used principally in the electronic and electrical industries. The major uses of sheet
and block mica are as electrical insulators in electronic equipment, thermal insulation, gauge
"glass", windows in stove and kerosene heaters, dielectrics in capacitors, decorative panels in
lamps and windows, insulation in electric motors and generator armatures, field coil insulation,
and magnet and commutator core insulation. Mica is also used as segment plates between copper
commutator sections to insulate copper from the steel; phlogopite mica is used because it wears
at the same rate as the copper segments.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Quartz

Quartz is one of the most common minerals in the Earth’s crust. As a mineral name, quartz refers
to a specific chemical compound (silicon dioxide, or silica, SiO 2), having a specific crystalline
form (hexagonal). It is found in all forms of rock: igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary.
Quartz is physically and chemically resistant to weathering. When quartz-bearing rocks become
weathered and eroded, the grains of resistant quartz are concentrated in the soil, in rivers, and on
beaches. The white sands typically found in river beds and on beaches are usually composed
mainly of quartz, with some white or pink feldspar as well

Uses:

Quartz crystal is one of several minerals which are piezoelectric, meaning that when pressure is
applied to quartz, a positive electrical charge is created at one end of the crystal and a negative
electrical charge is created at the other. These properties make quartz valuable in electronics
applications. Electronics-grade manufactured quartz is used in a large number of circuits for
consumer electronics products such as computers, cell phones, televisions, radios, electronic
games, etc. It is also used to make frequency control devices and electronic filters that remove
defined electromagnetic frequencies.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

Amphibole

Amphibolite is a dark, heavy, metamorphic rock composed mostly of the mineral amphibole.
Amphibolites have very little to no quartz. “Amphibole” refers not to a single mineral, but to a
group of minerals. Most belong to the monoclinic crystal system, but some belong to the
orthorhombic crystal system. They are silicate minerals containing SiO4 molecules. The SiO4
groups are connected to each other in double chains.

Amphibolite is very hard and takes a high polish. The combination of its ability to be polished,
its dark color and its texture have made amphibolite a popular dimension stone in construction. It
is used as paving stones and facing on buildings (both for interior and exterior use).

It is also used as crushed stone for the usual crushed stone applications such as road and railroad
bed construction. In this application it is used locally, near the source of the amphibolite. This
reduces the cost of transporting non-native stone in from other sources.
Gemologists and lapidary workers have discovered that some amphibolite rock produces a
shimmer effect when it is polished. They use rounded and polished pieces of amphibolite for
various pieces of jewelry.

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

DIAGENESIS

Diagenesis is the term used for all of the changes that a sediment undergoes after deposition and
before the transition to metamorphism. The multifarious processes that come under the term
diagenesis are chemical, physical, and biological. They include compaction, deformation,
dissolution, cementation, authigenesis, replacement, recrystallization, hydration, bacterial action,
and development of concretions. (Soft-sediment deformation can be included in diagenesis, but
not hard-rock folding and faulting.)

The two most important diagenetic processes are compaction, and lithification, the term used for
the complex of processes— including compaction—by which a loose sediment is converted into
a solid sedimentary rock

Lithification, complex process whereby freshly deposited loose grains of sediment are
converted into rock. Lithification may occur at the time a sediment is deposited or
later. Cementation is one of the main processes involved, particularly for sandstones and
conglomerates. In addition, reactions take place within a sediment between various minerals
and between minerals and the fluids trapped in the pores; these reactions, collectively
termed authigenesis, may form new minerals or add to others already present in the sediment.
The sediment may be compacted by rearrangement of grains under pressure, reducing pore
space and driving out interstitial liquid.

Metamorphism
Metamorphism comes from the Greek words “Meta” - change “Morphe” – form. Metamorphic
rocks form by solid-state (no melting) transformation of preexisting rock by processes that take
place beneath Earth’s surface. Chemical, mineralogical and structural adjustments of solid rocks
to physical and chemical changes at depths below the region of sedimentation

Agents of Metamorphism

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 ATRIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Department of Civil Engineering

Course: Conservation of Natural Resources (18CV656)

There are three main sources of chemically active fluids:

• pore waters of sedimentary rocks,

• fluids from cooling magma,

• water from dehydration of water-bearing minerals like gypsum (CaSO 4. 2H2O)

Temperature {Temperature increases with depth in the Earth along the Geothermal Gradient.
Thus, higher temperature can occur by burial of rock. {Temperature can also increase due to
igneous intrusion. z Pressure increases with depth of burial, thus, both pressure and temperature
will vary with depth in the Earth. Pressure is defined as a force acting equally from all directions.

Weathering
Weathering is the physical disintegration or chemical alteration of rocks at or near the Earth’s
surface

Types of Weathering

I. Mechanical (physical) weathering is the physical disintegration and reduction in the

size of the rocks without changing their chemical composition. Examples: exfoliation,
frost wedging, salt wedging, temperature changes, and abrasion
II. Chemical weathering decomposes, dissolves, alters, or weakens the rock through
chemical processes to form residual materials. Examples: carbonation, hydration,
hydrolysis, oxidation, and solution
III. Biological weathering is the disintegration or decay of rocks and minerals caused by
chemical or physical agents of organisms. Examples: organic activity from lichen and
algae, rock disintegration by plant or root growth, burrowing and tunneling
organisms, and acid secretion

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