2.

Capacitors and Capacitance

Q) Define capacitance.

In equation 1 , when V = 1V , Q=C

The capacitance of a capacitor is the charge stored on one plate per unit of potential
difference between the plates.

Q) Define one Farad

From equation 1 1 F = 1C/1V = CV -1

One Farad is the capacitance of a capacitor that has charge of one coulomb when we apply
an voltage drop of one volt.

Q) What you mean by capacitance of a capacitor is 15 μ F ?

The capacitor can store 15 μ C of charge when the p.d is 1 volt.

Capacitors in series

1 1 -1
C=( + )
c1 c2

Charge stored in each capacitor is same

Capacitors in parallel

Ctotal = C1 + C2

Voltage across each capacitor is same

Time Constant
The time constant is the time for a charge to have decreased to 1/e of it’s initial
value.
Uses of capacitors in electrical circuits
Energy storage, Power conditioning, Electronic noise filtering, Remote sensing and Signal
coupling/decoupling.
1|Page
 3.1 Concept of magnetic field
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field is a field of force produced either by
a) a permanent magnet
b) a current-carrying conductor (such as straight wire, circular coil, solenoid)
Magnetic field pattern
1) For a permanent magnet 2) For a solenoid

3) For a long straight wire

a) Current in upward direction b) Current in downward direction

c) Current into the page d) Current out of the page

2|Page
4) Circular loop

3.2 Force on a current carrying conductor

The direction of force is given by Fleming’s left-hand (motor) rule

Magnetic flux density (B)

The magnetic flux density at a point in space is the force experienced per unit
length by a long straight conductor carrying unit current and placed at right
angles to the field at that point.

3|Page
The unit for magnetic flux density is the tesla (T).
1T = 1NA−1m−1.
Q) Define one Tesla.
The magnetic flux density is 1T when a wire carrying a current of 1A placed at
right angles to the magnetic field experiences a force of 1N per metre of its
length.
What are factors affect the force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic
field?
 Current flowing through the conductor.
 The strength of the magnetic field.
 The length of the conductor.
 The angle between the conductor and the magnetic field.
Under what conditions does a current carrying conductor experience a
maximum force
When the angle between the conductor and the magnetic field is 90 degrees
(perpendicular).
Under what conditions does a force experienced by a current-carrying
straight conductor is minimum
When the conductor is placed along the direction of magnetic field whether
parallel or antiparallel.
3.3 Force on a Moving Charge

When a charged particle enter perpendicular to

the magnetic field it will move in a circular path.

Magnetic force gives the essential centripetal

force for motion

4|Page
 4.1 Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating electric current with a
magnetic field.
Electromagnetic induction Experiments
1) A wire moving in a magnetic field
When a wire moves perpendicular to a magnetic
field, it cuts the lines of flux, so an e.m.f is
induced across the wire and a current flow.
a) How we can reverse the direction of current
flow through the wire?
If the wire moves up, the current flows in a certain direction and if
the wire moves down, the current flows in opposite direction.
b) What are the cases when e.m.f is not induced?
If the wire is held stationary inside the field, no current flows.
If the wire moves parallel to the field lines, no current flows.
c) How we can increase the emf induced?
Use a stronger magnet
move the wire faster
Increase the length of the conductor inside the magnet
2) A magnet moving into and out of a coil
When a magnet moves towards or away from
a coil, an e.m.f is induced and a current flow.

5|Page
a) How we can reverse the direction of current flow through the coil?
If the magnet moves into the coil, flux linkage increases and current flows in one
direction. If the magnet moves out of the coil, flux linkage decreases and the
current flows in the opposite direction.
b) What are the cases when e.m.f is not induced?
If the manet is held stationary inside or outside the coil, no current flows.
c) How we can increase the emf induced?
Use a stronger magnet
move the magnet faster
Use coil with more turns
Use coil with greater cross-sectional area.
3) Induction by using two coils
When current flows in coil 1, the magnetic
flux of coil 1 starts changing so a current is
flows through the second coil.
a) How we can reverse the direction of
current flow through the coil B?
If the current direction is reversed in coil 1,
the current direction of coil 2 will change.
b) What are the cases when e.m.f is not induced?
When the current in coil 1 reaches maximum value, current in coil 2 drops to
zero. When there is no current through coil 1, current in coil 2 drops to zero.
c) How we can increase the emf induced?
Use coil with more turns
Insert an iron core
Increase the ac current in coil 1

6|Page
Magnetic Flux (φ)
Magnetic flux is defined as the number of magnetic field lines passing through a
given closed surface.
Magnetic flux linkage
For a coil with N turns, the magnetic flux linkage is defined as the product of the
magnetic flux and the number of turns; that is:
magnetic flux linkage = NΦ
The unit for magnetic flux linkage is the weber (Wb).
One weber (1 Wb)
One weber (1 Wb) is the flux that passes through an area of 1 m2 when the
magnetic flux density is 1 T.
1 Wb = 1 T m2.
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
Whenever there is a change in the magnetic flux linked with a coil, an
electromotive force (e.m.f) is induced.
Lenz's law
Lenz's law, in electromagnetism, statement that an induced electric current flow
in a direction such that the current opposes the change that induced it.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
It is used to find the direction of induced
current

7|Page
5.1 characteristics of alternating currents
Characteristics of alternating current/voltage
1) Period (T)
The time for one oscillation is the period.
2) Frequency(f)
The number of oscillations per unit time is the frequency f.
1
f =T

3) Peak Value ( Amplitude x0)

The amplitude is a measure of the displacement of the wave from its resting
position.
Root-mean-square (r.m.s.) and peak value (I0) Value of current and voltage

 The peak value is the highest voltage that the waveform will ever
reach.

 The the R.M.S value is defined as the square root of means of squares of
instantaneous values.

5.2 The transformers

Transformer Types

Step-up Transformer: These transformers are used to convert low voltage

primary supply to high voltage secondary output.

Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage
primary supply to low voltage secondary output.

8|Page
Advantages of ac over dc:

1. The ac generators have higher efficiency than dc.

2. The loss of energy during transmission is negligible for ac.
3. The ac can be easily converted into dc.
4. The variation of ac can easily be done using transformers either step up or
step down.
Rectification
Rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current
(DC).
Smoothing by capacitors

A Smoothing capacitor is a capacitor that acts to smooth or reduce fluctuations in

a signal.

9|Page