10TH CLASS SEXUAL REPRODUCTION NOTES
2025
[Link] is a seed? What are the parts of a seed ?
A seed is a fertilized, matured ovule that contains an
embryo or undeveloped plant, stored food material and a
protective coat. A seed has following parts.
Seed coat: It is the protective covering of the seed .
Cotyledons: These are the embryonic leaves that store
food for the germination of embryo or young plant.
Embryo : Embryo has two parts (i) Plumule: It is a part of
embryo that gives rise to shoot. ii) Radical: It is the part
of embryo that gives rise to roots.
[Link] of a new born child is a matter of chance and none
of the parents may be considered responsible for it. Justify
the statement.
Sex of a child depends on what happens during
fertilization.
The female gamete ova always contributes an X
chromosome during fertilization. The male gamete sperm
contributes either X or y chromosome during fertilization
Whether sperm will contribute the X-chromosome or y
chromosome is a matter of chance and the man does not
have any control on it.
If the sperm carrying X chromosome fertilizes an egg
which always carries X chromosome then the child born
will be a girl but if the sperm carrying y-chromosome
fertilizes an egg which always carries X chromosome then
the child born will be a boy. Thus sex of a newborn child is
a matter of chance and none of the parents may be
considered responsible for it.
Q3. Name the part marked 'A' in the diagram given. How
does 'A' reaches part 'B' State the importance of the parts
C. What happens to the part marked 'D' after fertilization
is over
i) 'A' pollen grain , ii)'A'reaches the'B' (stigma) by
agents of pollination.
iii) 'C Pollen tube helps male gamete to reach the egg.
iv) After fertilization it converts into embryo.
[Link] the process of double fertilization in a flower?
A Pollen grain contains two male gametes.
When a pollen grain falls on the stigma of a carpel it
grows a long polien tube downwards into the ovary
through the style.
One of the male gametes fuses with egg to form zygote.
This process is called syngamy. The other male gamete
fuses with two polar nuclei to form endosperm (the food
storage tissue of seed) This process is called triple fusion.
Since two acts of fertilization occur in an embryo sac it is
called double fertilization. After fertilization zygote
develops into embryo. Overy develops into fruit. Ovules
develop into seed. Inside the seed, embryo the future
plant is present.
[Link] does an embryo get nourishment from the
Mother's body
The embryo gets nourishment from the Mother's body
through Placenta. The Placenta is the disc shaped tissue
which is embedded in the uterine wall. Placenta has villi
on the embryo side and blood spaces on the mother side.
This provides a large surface area for glucose and oxygen
to pass from mother to embryo. It also removes the
wastes (CO2 and nitrogenous wastes) generated by the
foetus to the mothers blood. Thus the Placenta serves as
the nutritive respiratory and excretory organ of the
foetus.
[Link] a tobacco plant, the male gametes have twenty-four
chromosomes. What is the number of chromosomes in the
female gamete? What is the number of chromosomes in
the zygpte?
Answer: Number of chromasomes in female gamete is 24
and in zygote it is 48.
Q7. What would be the ratio of chromosome number
between an egg and its zygote? How is the sperm
genetically different from the egg?
Answer: The ratio is 1: 2 Sperms contain either X or Y
chromosome whereas an egg will always have an X
chromosome. Homologous chromosomes, or homologs, are
a set of one maternal and one paternal chromosome that
pair up with each other inside a cell during fertilization..
[Link] are haploid and zygote is diploid Justify the
statement. The formation of
gametes by melosis helps to maintain normal number of
chromosomes in the progeny means the original number
of chromosome becomes half during gamete formation by
melosis. During fertilization when the gametes fuse the
original number of chromosomes is restored in the
progeny.C
Q9. How many pairs of chromosomes are present in
human beings? out of this how many are autosomes and
sex chromosomes?
23 pairs of chromosomes are present in human beings.
Out of this the first 22 pairs are called autosomes and the
las pair of these are sex chromosomes. Two types of sex
chromosomes are there XX and Xy.
Q10. What is DNA copying? state its importance.
The process where DNA molecule produces two similar
copies of itself in a reproducing cell is called DNA copying.
Its importance are: It makes the transmission of
characters from parents to next generation possible. It
causes variation in the population. Note Sexual
reproduction gives rise to more variations compared to
Asexual Reproduction because two parents are involved in
sexual reproduction where as only one parent is involved
in Asexual reproduction.
[Link] are chromosomes? Where are they located in a
Cell? Chromosomes
are thread like structures that carry hereditary
information of an individual. They are located inside the
nucleus of a cell.
Q12. What are sex chromosomes?
Sex chromosomes are the chromosomes which help in
determining the sex of a species. Animals have two types
of sex chromosomes. The sex of an infant is determined by
the type of sex chromosome contributed by the male
gamete since the ratio of male gametes containing X
chromosome and those containing Y chromosome is 50:50,
so there is 50% chance a girl can be born and another 50%
chance a boy child can be born .
Q13) How is the process of i) pollination different from
fertilization and
ii) asexual and sexual reproduction.
Pollination Fertilization
The process of transfer of Fertilization is the fusion or
1
pollen from the male parts union of the
(anther) of a flower to the male gamete (sperm) and
female part (stigma) of the female gamete (egg) and
same or different flower is leads to the formation of
called pollination. zygote.
Pollination takes place Fertilization takes place after
2
before fertilization. pollination.
Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Involves two parents.
Involves only one parent.
Gametes are formed.
Gametes are not formed.
Fertilization takes place and
No fertilization and no
zygote is formed.
zygote formation occur.
Melosis occurs during reproduction
Meiosis does not occur
where gametes are formed with 23
during reproduction.
single chromosomes or half the
Very least variations are
amount of DNA.
produced.
Large variations are produced.
Hariditary characters
It plays a prominent role in the
remain same.
origin of new species.
It's role in the origin of
No two humans look alike because
new species is minimum.
DNA from the gametes of
Ex-Various sugarcane
two parents is combined
plants look similar because
together.
DNA of single parent is
Leads to continuous evolution of
copled.
new organism.
.
Q14. Why does menstruation occur?
Answer: Menstruation is a process in which blood and
mucous flows out every month through the vagina. This
process occurs every month because one egg is released
from the ovary every month and at the same time, the
uterus (womb) prepares itself to receive the fertilized egg.
Thus, the inner lining of the uterus gets thickened and is
supplied with blood to nourish the embryo. If the egg
does t get fertillsed, then the lining of the uterus breaks
down slowly and gets released in the form of blood and
mucous from the vagina.
[Link] does reproduction help in providing stability to
populations of species.
Answer: Living organisms reproduce for the continuation
of a particular species. Reproduction is the
process of producing the same kind of species by the
existing [Link] helps in providing stability to the
population of species.
DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid is the genetic material that is
present in the cells of all organisms. DNA carries genetic
information from one generation to the other and this
helps in producing organisms of its own types. This is the
reason why cats give birth to only cats or dogs give birth
to only dogs. Therefore, reproduction provides stability to
populations of dogs or cats or any other species. DNA
copying is a must for inheriting the traits from parents.
[Link] is variation beneficial to the species but not
necessarily for the Individual?
Answer: Variations are beneficial to the species than
individual because sometimes for a species, the
environmental conditions change so drastically that their
survival becomes difficult. For example, if the temperature
of water increases suddenly, then most of the bacterie
living in that water would die. Only few variants that are
resistant to hest would be able to survive. However, if
these variants were not there, then the entire species of
bacteria would have been destroyed. Thus, these varients
help in the survival of the species. However, all variations
are not necessarily beneficial for the individual
organisma.
Q17. What are the functions performed by the testis in
human beings? Answer: The
testes are the male reproductive organs that are located
outside the abdominal cavity within a pouch called
scrotum. Hear the temperature remains 2 to 2.5°C less
than body temperature which is essential for the
formation of sperms. Functions of testes: Produce sperms
and a hormone called testosterone, which brings about
secondary sexual characters in boys
Q18. What are the changes OR secondary sexual
characters seen in girls AND boys at the time of puberty?
The various changes occur in girls at puberty are :[Link]
grow under armpits and pubic region. Mammary glands (or
breasts) develop and enlarge. The hips broaden. Extra fat
is deposited in various parts of the body like hips and
thighs. Fallopian tube, uterus and vagina enlarge. Ovaries
start to release [Link] (monthly periods)
starts.
The various changes that occur in boys at puberty are hair
growth in the form of moustache and beard and on chest.
Rapid increase in height, chest and shoulders become
wider. Hair growth in armpits and in pubic region between
the thighs. Testes and penis become enlarged. Testes
starts to make sperms.
Q19) Name and differentiate between the two modes of
pollination in flowering [Link] two modes of
pollination are self pollination and cross pollination.
Self Pollination Cross Fertilization
Self pollination occurs within a cross pollination occurs
flower or between two flowers between two flowers born on
of the same plant. different plants of the same
Flower do not depend on other species agents such as
agents for Pollination. polien Insects water and wind are
grains are produced in small required for pollination
numbers pollen grains are produced in
large numbers.
Examples of Bisexual Flowers
Bisexual flowers: Lily, Rose, Ex Unisexual flowers:
Sunflower, Tulip, Daffodil, Coconut flowers, Papaya,
Watermelon, Cucumber,
Mustard, Brinjal, Hibiscus, Malze, Muskmelon, Snake
Tomato, Long bean, Chille, gourd, Bitter gourd,
Country bean, mango.. Pumpkin,
GAMATES ZYGOTE
It is a germ cell that takes part It is a product of
in fertilization. fertilization .
There are two types of gametes Zygote is of one type.
male and female gametes . Diploid or 2n chromosome
Haploid or 1n chromosome number.
number. It carries characteristics of
A gamete carrles characteristics
both the parents .
of only one parent.
Gamete is the last cell of its Zygote is the first cell of its
generation. generation.
Q20 .Draw a neat labelled diagram of MRS and FRS and
write the function of each part.
MRS.a) Testis formation of sperms and secretion of sex
hormone testostéron. b)Vas
deferens or spermduct-carries sperms to the urethra
c)Seminal vesicle-secretes mucus and watery alkaline fluid
that contains nutrients for the nurishment of sperms. The
fluid is released during ejaculation.
d) Prostate gland secretes mucus and alkaline fluid which
is released during ejaculation, it helps in the easy
transportation of sperms.
e) Urethra carries urine from the urinary bladder as well
as sperms from the sperm duct.
FRS-i) Oviduct: Fertilization occurs in the Oviduct.
ii) Ovary: It produces the female gamete or germ cell
called ova or egg. It
secretes the female sex hormones such as oestrogen and
progesteron. iii) Uterus: If
fertilization takes place the embryo gets attached to the
wall of uterus and grows there until [Link] contractions
of the muscles of uterus help in child birth.
iv) Cervix: It produces watery fluid which serves as a
lubricant for the penis. v)
Vagina: This is a muscular tube about 7 to 10 cm long. It
receives the male gametes. The vagina is also called birth
canal as it allows passage of baby at the time of
childbirth. Monthly periods occurs through vagina.
Contraception
Q1) What is contraception ? List three advantages of
adapting contraceptive measure.
The prevention of pregnancy in women is called
contraception. It helps in maintaining health of women as
frequent pregnancies have adverse effect on the health of
the mother.
It helpe in preventing sexually transmitted diseases such
as AIDS, Syphilis, Gonorrhoes, etc.
It helps in birth control. If a family is small then each child
will get proper resources liks attention, education, food,
clothes, etc.
Q2) a) Name two modes of transmission of AID.
i) By having sexual contact with an infected person
iI) By transmission of blood from an infected parson.
Preventive measures to not get infected by AIDS.
i) Using condom during sexual contact
il) Testing of blood before transfusion.
iii_ If People can be made aware about AlDs by conducting
awareness camp, organising Street drama, newspaper
advertisement, hoarding etc.
Q3) What is the result of reckless female foeticide.
It is the practice of killing female foeticide and it has led
to various problems in population balance and it reduces
the number of female child per male child, which is not
good sign of a healthy population in a particular area.
The two factors that determine the size of a population
birth rate, death rate.
Q4) Prenatal sex determination has been prohibited by
law, state the necessity of enforcement of this law.
A)The most ideal female, male sex ratio for a healthy
society is 1000:1000. Because
of reckless female foeticids, sex ratio is decreasing at an
alarming rate in some sections of our society.
It is therefore become necessary to ban detection of sex
of the foetus.
Q5) i) What is AIDS? Ii)Name the causative organism. Iii)
List the important modes of transmission of the disease.
i) Acquired immuno deficiency syndrome a life
threatening condition which damages the body's Immune
system due to which its ability to fight against infections
gets affected. (ii) AIDS is caused by HIV Human Immuno
Deficiency Virus. iii) Four modes of spreading AIDs are as
follows a) by having sexual contact with an infected
person b) By the transfusion of blood from an infected
person to healthy person .c)Through infected needles
used for injection .
d ) Through the Placenta from the mother to child during
pregnancy. HIV weakens the immune system by destroying
CD4 cells . CD4 cells are a type of white
blood cell that circulates throughout the body in the blood. They're also called
CD4 T lymphocytes or "helper T cells." That's because they help by stimulating
other immune cells such as macrophages ,B lymphocytes, to destroy viruses,
bacteria, and other germs that may make you sick.
Q6) Name two sexually transmitted diseases caused by i)
virus and ii) bacteria i) viral
infections- HIV AIDS and warts. ii)Bacterial infections -
Gonorrhea and syphilis.
Q7) List Four Points of significance of reproductive health
in a soclety. Name any two areas related to reproductive
health which have improved over the past 50 years in our
country.
A) Significance of reproductive health in a society: It
prevents the spread of various sexually transmitted
diseases such as AIDS, Syphilis, etc
Individuals with sound reproductive health produce better
offsprings which have better chances of survival.
Better sex education and awareness helps to maintain the
population. prevent population explosion, unwanted and
teen pregnancies can be avoided. The
areas in which reproductive health has improved
tremendously over the past 50 years. are a) family
planning b) mortality rate.
FEMALE R SYSTEM
MALE R SYSTEM
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Question: How will an organism be benefited if it
reproduces through spores?
A) If an organism reproduces through spores.
ADVENTAGES ARE: Large numbers of
spores are produced in one sporangium.
Spores are distributed easily by air to far-off places to
avoid competition at one place. Spores are covered by
thick walls to prevent dehydration under unfavourable
conditions.
Question2: Can you think of reasons why more complex
organisms cannot give rise to new Individuals through
regeneration?
Answer: Simple organisms such as Hydra and Planaria are
capable of producing new individuals through the process
of regeneration. The process of regeneration involves the
formation of new organisms from its body parts. Simple
organisms can utilize this method of reproduction as their
entire body is made of similar kind of cells in which any
part of their body can be formed by growth and
development.
However, complex organisms have organ-system level of
organization. All the organ systems of their body work
together as an interconnected unit. They can regenerate
their lost body parts such as skin, muscles, blood, etc
However, they cannot give rise to new individuals through
regeneration.
Question3: Why is vegetative propagation practised for
growing some types of plants? Answer: Vegetative
propagation is the ability of the plants to reproduce by
producing new plants from the vegetative plant parts such
as leaf, stem, or roots under appropriate conditions. This
method is the only means of reproduction for some
seedless plant varieties such as banana, rose, and
jasmine. However, this method of reproduction is also
used for agricultural purposes in commercial production of
some plants such as sugarcane, grapes, roses, etc.
Q4) How are the modes for reproduction different in
unicellular and multicellular organisms?
Answer: In unicellular organisms, reproduction occurs by
the division of the entire cell. The modes of reproduction
in unicellular organisms can be fission, budding, etc.
whereas in multicellular organisms, specialised
reproductive organs are present. Therefore, they can
reproduce by complex reproductive methods such as
vegetative propagation, spore formation, etc. In more
complex multicellular organisms such as human beings
and plants, the mode of reproduction is sexual
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction may be defined as the production of
off springs by a single parent without meiosis, formation
of gametes, fertilization and transfer of gametic materials
between individuals. Mostly it occurs in unicellular
organisms, s.g. bacteria, protozoa, some plants algae,
fungi, bryophytes, etc) and certain multicellular organism
(e.g. sponges and Hydra).
Types of Asexual Reproduction Fission - It is defined as the
splitting of a unicellular organism Into two or more
separate daughter cells.
[Link] is of two types: a) Binary fission: During binary
fission, the nucleus divides into two equal parts. The
nuclear division is followed by the appearance of
constriction in cell membrane which separates the
cytoplasm into two equal parts, each with one nucleus,
e.g. Amoeba, Paramecium, Leishmania etc.
(b) Multiple fission: In multiple fission, the parent
organism splits to form many new organisms at the same
time. A cyst is formed around the cell of a single celled
organism especially during unfavourable conditions.
During multiple fission, the nucleus of parent cell divides
several times into many daughter nuclei, followed by
division of cytoplasm into as many pieces as the number
of nuclei e.g. Plasmodium.
[Link] It is the process of production of new
organism from an outgrowth of the parent Individual.
Budding in Hydra: A bulge appears on the body as a result
of repeated mitotic division in the cells resulting in the
formation of lateral outgrowth called bud. This bud
enlarges in size by further division of cells and attains the
shape of parent. It then separates from the parent body
and starts behaving as new Hydra.
Budding in yeast:
A small bud like out growth appears at one end of the
parent cell which gradually enlarges in size. The
nucleus also enlarges and divides into two daughter
nuclei. One nuclei remains in the parent cell and
other goes to the daughter. When the bud attains
almost similar size like parent a constriction appears
at the base of the bud separating it from the parent.
[Link] formation -A spore is a single or several
celled reproductive structure that detaches from the
parent and gives rise, directly or indirectly to a new
individual. Spore formation takes place mostly in
bacteria and fungi. In fungi, spores are formed in a
sac-like structure called sporangium at the tips of
fungal hyphae. The nucleus divides inside the
sporangium and gets surrounded by a small mass of
cytoplasm forming a spore. After attaining maturity,
the sporangial wall ruptures releasing the spores.
[Link] Regeneration is defined as a natural
ability of some simple multicellular organisms to
replace worn out parts, to repair damaged parts or to
regrow cast off organs. It takes place mostly in Hydra,
Planaria, sponges, etc.
Regeneration is performed by specialised cells. These
specialised cells proliferate and make large number of
cells. Different cells from the mass of cells undergo
change to become various cell types and tissues.
These changes takes place in an organized sequence
referred to as development.
[Link] In some multicellular organisms with
simple body organization, yet another method of asexual
reproduction works. Spirogyra (algae) breaks up into
smaller pieces upon maturation, These pieces (fragments)
grow into new individuals.
[Link] propagation in plants-Plant undergoing
vegetative reproduction propagates by part of their body
other than a seed. This part is called propagule.
Vegetative reproduction is of different types.
Types of vegetative
propagation
Natural vegetative propagation
1. Through leaf buds. Eg. Bryophyllum
2. Through stem. Eg potato, onion, lemon
3. Through roots. Eg guava, sweet potato etc
Artificial vegetative propagation
1. Stem cutting. Eg. Rose
2. .Micro propagation. Eg. Orchids, Dahlia
3. Layering. Eg. rose, jasmine
4. Grafting. Eg. lemon, orange, mango
(a) Natural method: There are many plants which
propagate naturally. Some plants propagate by roots e.g.
sweet potato, guava, etc.; some by stems like ginger,
banana, potato, strawberry; etc.; some by leaves like
Bryophyllum, Begonia, etc.
(b) Artificial method: There are some plants which
propagates artificially by following methods:-
(i) Cutting: In this method, a small portion of the parent
plant (stem or root) is cut and buried partly in the moist
soil. After some days, the cutting develops into a new
plant exactly similar to the parent plant. Many plants like
rose, grapes, etc are propagated by means of cutting.
(ii) Layering: In this process, roots are artificially induced
on the stem branches before they are detached from the
parent plant for propagation. Layering is of two types.
Mound layering: In this process the lower flexible portion
is pulled and a portion of it is covered by soil to develop
roots, e.g. strawberry.
Air layering or gootee: A ring of bark is removed from the
plant and this portion is covered with clay, cow dung, hay,
etc. wrapped with a polythene sheet. This portion is called
gootee, e.g. litchi, pomegranate, lemon, jasmine, orange,
etc.
(iii) Grafting: In this process, two parts of the plant are
joined in such a way that they grow as one plant. It is
done between two closely related plants with vascular
cambium.
(iv) Micropropagation: It is defined as, "The production of
plants from a small piece of plant
tissue removed from the growing tip of a plant in a
suitable growth medium (culture solution). It is also called
tissue culture. This technique is used for the production of
ornamental plants like orchids, dahlia, etc. Mechanism of
micro propagation A small piece of plant tissue placed C in
a culture medium divides rapidly to form a shapeless lump
called 'callus'.
The callus is then placed in different culture media to
stimulate the development of root and shoot. Tiny
plantlets are formed from just few cells which are
transplanted into pots or soil where they can grow to form
mature plants. Adventages :It is a fast technique
producing many plantlets from a small plant tissue in few
weeks and using very little space. In other words, it is
quite economical. The plants produced by tissue culture
are disease free.
(c) Significance of vegetative propagation:It is the only method of
reproduction in those plants which have lost their capacity to produce seeds
e.g. banana, orange, rose, etc. By this process plants retain their original types
without variation. It is used to produce disease free plants. Plants produced by
this process can give flowers and fruits earlier than those produced from
seeds.