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MODULE 2
OBJECTIVES, LEARNING OUTCOMES, TEST, MEASUREMENT, ASSSESSMENT, EVALUATION
Introduction
Each discipline uses its own special vocabulary – the jargon of the discipline. Students should be able to understand
these special terminologies so they can use them in their discourse. This module introduces or reintroduces important terms
used in this module and in the succeeding modules.
Objectives
The student will:
1. List the terms in their vocabulary logbook with definitions and own examples
2. Differentiate the terms learning outcomes, test, measurement, assessment, and evaluation from each other.
Lesson Proper
Humankind is endowed with mind resources that they can use to think, understand, evaluate, create, and so on. Education
hones these mind resources. The origin of education is a Latin word educare or educere which means to “draw out” or “lead
out” (Oxford Dictionary, 2008). To educate therefore means to “draw out” from the learners’ that which is inherently existing in
their minds. A “facilitative” teacher does this guided by what he/she knows of pedagogic principles. Teacher trainings
institutions equip pre-service teachers with content and pedagogic knowledge to enable them to facilitate the learners’ learning.
The Commission of Higher Education (CHED), mandates HEIs to use Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) defined by these
characteristics:
1) It is student-centered, i.e. it places the students at the center of the process by focusing on Student Learning
Outcomes (SLO)
2) It is faculty-driven i.e. it encourages faculty responsibility for teaching, assessing program outcomes and motivating
participation from students.
3) It is meaningful, i.e. it provides data to guide the teacher in making valid and continuing improvement in instruction and
assessment activities.
The Department of Education (DepEd) has already formulated learning outcomes in all subject areas from Kindergarten to
Grade 12.
A. Objectives vs Learning Outcomes (Navarro,Santos, Corpuz, 2019)
Educational objectives of the subject/course are the broad goals that the subject/course expects to achieve. They
define in general terms the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that the teacher will help the students to attain. Examples of
teaching objectives, hence, stated from the point of view of the teacher are: “to develop, to provide, to enhance, to inculcate,
etc. Learning outcomes are stated as concrete active verbs such as: to demonstrate, to explain, to differentiate, to illustrate,
etc. stated from the point of view of the learners.
Outcomes-Based Education (OBE) focuses classroom instruction on the skills and competencies that students must
demonstrate when they exit. There are two types: immediate and deferred outcomes.
Immediate Outcomes are competencies/skills acquired upon completion of an instruction, a subject, a grade level, a
segment of the program, or of the program itself. There are referred to as instructional outcomes.
Examples:
● Ability to communicate by writing and speaking
● Mathematical problem-solving skills
● Skill in identifying objects by using different senses
● Ability to produce artistic or literary works
● Ability to do research and write the results
● Ability to present an investigative science project
● Skill in story telling
● Promotion to a higher grade level
● Graduation from a program
● Passing a required licensure examination
● Initial job placement.
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Deferred outcomes refer to the ability to apply cognitive, psychomotor, and affective skills/competencies in various
situations many years after completion of a degree program.
Examples:
● Success in professional practice or occupation
● Promotion in a job
● Success in career planning, health and wellness
● Awards and recognition
These are referred to as institutional outcomes
B. Test vs Measurement
To what extent the learners achieved the immediate learning outcomes, one has to measure. Measurement refers to
the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some objects or subjects are determined. To measure, one uses a
measuring tool. The commonest measuring tools used in classrooms are tests.
Norm-referenced vs Criterion-Referenced Test. A norm-referenced test indicates one’s standing in the score distribution
compared to that of students comprising a norm group, while a criterion-referenced test reveals one’s mastery level of a given
body of knowledge anchored to specific curricular objectives.
Similarities and Differences in Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Tests*

Attribute Norm-Referenced Test (NRT) Criterion-Referenced Test (CRT)

State of the Art Highly developed, technically sound Mixed & variable; technology developing
Developmental Cost Major Moderate to major
Consumer Cost Relatively inexpensive Relatively expensive
Utility General purpose; long-lived Situation-specific; short-lived
Content Validity & Based on a specified content Based on a specified content domain, appropriately
Coverage domain, appropriately sampled, and sampled, and tending to have more items per objectives.
tending to have fewer items per Tends to be specific and narrow.
objective/ Tends to be general and
broad
Score interpretation In terms of specified norm group (e.g. In terms of specified criterion of proficiency (e.g. percent
percentile ranks, grade equivalents) mastery)
Item Development Two main considerations: content One main consideration: content validity
validity and item discrimination
Standardized Yes Usually
Sensitivity to instruction Tends to be low to moderate, Tends to be high, when closely matched to a particular
because of its general purpose instructional situation.
nature
Reliability High Can be high, but sometimes hard to establish
Application To assess the effectiveness of given To assess the effectiveness of given instructional treatments
instructional treatments in achieving in achieving specific instructional objectives.
general instructional objectives
*Isaac, Stephen and Michael, William B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation, 3rd edition. California: EdiTS.
C. Assessment vs Evaluation
The term assessment is derived from the Latin word assidere which means “to sit beside” (Wiggins, 1993 in Navarro,
[Link]).
Assessment is the process of gathering evidence of students’ performance over a period of time to determine learning
and mastery of skills. Such evidence of learning can take many forms and they are usually compiled in portfolios. Power point
presentations, research reports, essays, journal entries, and varied types of paper and pencil tests and many more are
examples of assessment.
The overall goal of assessment is to improve student learning and provide students, parents, and teachers with reliable
information regarding student progress and extent of attainment of the expected learning outcomes. Assessment uses, as
basis, the levels of achievement and standards required for the curricular goals appropriate for the grade or year level.
Assessment results show the more permanent learning and clearer picture of the student’s ability.
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Evaluation is rooted on the word “value.” To evaluate therefore is to provide information on the worthiness,
appropriateness, desirability, or goodness of a thing. The end result of evaluation is to adopt, reject or revise what has been
evaluated.
Evaluation as a process involves data collection and analysis quantitatively and/or qualitatively. Evaluations are often
divided into two broad categories: formative and summative.
Formative evaluation is a method of judging the worth or a program while the program activities are in progress. This
type of evaluation focuses on the process. The results of formative evaluation give information to the learners and teachers on
how well the objectives of the program are being attained while the program is in progress. Its main objective is to determine
deficiencies so that the appropriate interventions can be done.
Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program of activities. The focus
is on the result. The instruments used to collect data for summative evaluation are questionnaire, survey forms,
interview/observation guide and tests and many more. Summative evaluation is designed to determine the effectiveness of a
program or activity designed to determine the effectiveness of a program or activity based on its avowed purposes.
Application
What you are asked to do in TASK 2 will show how much you have learned from this module and the readings that you are
expected to do as independent learners. Any item that you missed answering in the midterm and finals signals the need for
further reading. Use the YouTube as there are many brief and informative lectures in there to learn more about assessment in
learning.\

MODULE No. 3
STATING BEHAVIORAL OBJECTIVES
Objective:
Construct cognitive, affective and psychomotor objectives containing the three essential
elements of a behavioral objective
Lesson Proper:
There are five (5) requirements of well - formulated behavioral objectives:

1. Statement of conditions or stipulations, in essence, describing the learning task and its constraints (content);
(1) Designation of the learner (such as Grade 7 students in English class);
(2) Use of action verbs (such as to construct, to define, to order )that indicate observable activities, although sometimes
more complex objectives stated as inferred processes (such as to solve, to analyze, to synthesize, or to apply) may be
used.
(3) Specification of an outcome (product); and
(4) Specification of the standard or criterion of an expected or acceptable level of performance with a possible time
limitation.
Illustrations

Objective in Mathematics Given 20 addition problems consisting of 5 two-digit numbers arranged vertically (condition
or content), a Grade 4 pupil (learner) can write (action verb – observable process) the answers (the written answer
being the product) to 18 out 20 problems in not more than 5 minutes (standard criterion, quantity, and time
specified).

Objective in English Given a 100-word paragraph to read orally (condition or content), the Grade 7 student (learner)
will sound out the words in the text (action word – observable process) with 85 percent (standard criterion and
quantity specified) word reading accuracy (product).

ATTACHMENT M-3 (1)

EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: COGNITIVE AND SUMMATIVE DOMAINS*

A. Summary of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Cognitive Domain

a. Knowledge - Remembering something previously learned
1.10 Knowledge of specifics Recall of information vits with concrete referents
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1.11 Knowledge of Terminology

1.12 Knowledge of specific facts
1.20 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics - Includes methods of
inquiry, chronological sequences, standards of judgement, patterns of
organization with a filed
1.21 Knowledge of conventions: characteristics ways of testing ideas and
phenomena (usage, style, etc.
1.22 Knowledge of trends and sequences
1.23 Knowledge of classifications and categories
1.24 Knowledge of methodology, methods of inquiry, and problem-solving
approaches
1.30 Knowledge of universals and abstractions in a field
1.31 Knowledge of principles and generalizations
1.32 Knowledge of theories and structures
2.00 Comprehension Understanding of material being communicated, without necessarily
relating it to other material
2.10 Translation from one language or form of communication to another
2.20 Interpretation The explanation or summarization of a communication
2.30 Extrapolation Extension of trends beyond the given data
3.00 Application The use of abstractions in particular and concrete situations
4.00 Analysis Breaking down communication into its parts so that the organization of
ideas is clear
4.10 Analysis of elements recognizing distinguishing facts from hypotheses
4.20 Analysis of relationships
4.30 Analysis of organizational principles of structure and arrangement
5.00 Synthesis Putting elements into a whole
5.10 Production of a unique communication
5.20 Production of a plan for operations
5.30 Derivation of a set of abstract relations
6.00 Evaluation Judging the value of material and methods for a given purpose
6.10 Judgements in terms of internal evidence Logical accuracy and consistency
6.20 Judgement in terms of external evidence Consistency with established standards
or models.
B. Summary of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives – Affective Domain
1.0 Receiving (attending) The willingness to attend to or receive certain stimuli
1.1 Awareness - to be conscious of stimulus events
1.2 Willingness to receive - to attend willingly, without avoidance
1.3 Controlled or selected attention - to differentiate figure and ground
2.0 Responding Active involvement and participation
2.1 Acquiescence in responding
2.2. Willingness to respond
2.3 Satisfaction in respons3e
3.0 Valuing The worth of a thing, phenomenon, or behavior
3.1. Acceptance of a value
3.2 Preference for a value
3.3. Commitment
4.0 Organization The organization, interrelationship, and ordering of values
4.1. Conceptualization of a value
4.2. Organization of a value system
5.0 Characterization by a value or value complex The generalization and integration of a total
world view or philosophy
5.2. Generalized set - one’s basic orientation of point of view
5.2 Characterization - the peak of the internalization process.
INSTRUMENTATION OF THE TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES: COGNITIVE DOMAIN

KEY WORDS

Taxonomy Classification Examples of Infinitives Examples of Direct Objects

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1.0 Knowledge
1.10 Knowledge of specifics

1.11 Knowledge of Terminology

to define, to distinguish vocabulary, terms, terminology, meaning(s), definitions.
referents, elements, facts, factual information, (sources),
to acquire, to identify (names), (dates)
1.12 Knowledge of Specific
Facts to recall, to recognize (events), (persons), (places). (time periods), properties,
to recall, to recognize examples, phenomena

to acquire, to identify
Form(s), conventions, uses, usage, rules, ways, devices,
symbols, representations, style(s), format(s),
1.20 Knowledge of Ways and actions, processes,
Means of Dealing with movement(s), continuity, developments(s), trend(s),
Specifics sequence(s) causes(s) relationships(s), forces,
influences
1.21 Knowledge of Conventions to recall, to identify,
area(s), type(s). feature(s), class(es), set(s), division(s),
to recognize, to acquire arrangement(s), classification(s), category/categories
1.22 Knowledge of Trends,

Sequences to recall, to recognize criteria, basics, elements

to acquire, to identify

1.23 Knowledge of

Classifications and to recall to recognize, to acquire, methods, techniques, approaches, uses, procedures,
to identify treatment
Categories

1.24 Knowledge of Criteria

to recall, to recognize,

to acquire, to identify
1.25 Knowledge of
to recall, to recognize Principle(s), generalizations(s) proportions(s),
Methodology fundamentals, implication(s)
to acquire, to identify
1.30 Knowledge of the Theories, bases, interrelations, structures(s),
Universals and organization(s), formulations(s)

Abstractions in a Field

1.31 Knowledge of Principles,

Generalization
to recall, to recognize, to
acquire, to identify

1.32 Knowledge of Theories and

Structures To recall, to recognize, to

acquire, to identify

KEY WORDS
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Taxonomy Classification Examples of Infinitives Examples of Direct Objects

2.00 Comprehension

2.10 Translations .to translate, to transform, to give in .meaning(s), sample(s) definition(s), abstraction(s),
own words, to illustrate, to represent, representations, words, phrases
to change to rephrase, to restate
.relevancies, relationships, essentials, aspects, new
2.20 Interpretation .to interpret, to reorder, to rearrange, view(s), qualifications, conclusions, methods, theories,
to differentiate, to distinguish, to abstractions
make, to draw, to explain, to
demonstrate
2.30 Extrapolation to estimate, to infer, to conclude, to consequences, implications, conclusions, factors,
predict, to differentiate, to determine, ramifications, meanings, corollaries, effects, probabilities
to extend, to interpolate, to
extrapolate, to fill in, to draw to apply,
to generalize, to relate, to choose, to
develop, to organize, to use, to
employ, to transfer, to restructure, to
classify principles, laws, conclusions, effects, methods, theories,
3.00 Application to distinguish, to detect, to identify, to abstractions, situations, generalizations, processes,
classify, to discriminate, to recognize, phenomena, procedures,
to categorize, to deduce

elements, hypothesis/hypotheses, conclusions,

to analyze, to contrast, to compare, assumptions, statements (of facts) statements (of intent)
4.00 Analysis to distinguish, arguments, particulars

4.10 Analysis of Elements to deduce relationships, interrelations, relevance, relevancies,

themes, evidence, fallacies, arguments, cause-effect(s)

consistency/consistencies, parts, ideas, assumptions

4.20 Analysis of to analyze, to distinguish, to detect,

Relationship to deduce form(s), patterns(s), purpose(s), point(s) of view(s),
techniques, biases(s), structure(s), theme(s),
4.30 Analysis of arrangement(s), organization(s).
Organizational

Principles

KEY WORDS

Taxonomy Classification Examples of Infinitives Examples of Direct Objects

5.00 Sythesis to write, to tell, to relate, to Structure(s), pattern(s), product(s), performance(s),

produce, to constitute to design(s). work(s), communications, effort(s), specifics,
5.20 Production of a Unique transmit, to originate, to modify, compositions(s), plan(s), objectives, specification(s),
Communication to document schematics(s), operations(s) way(s), solution(s), means,
phenomena, taxonomies, concept(s), scheme(s),
theories, relationships, abstractions, generalizations,
hypothesis/hypotheses. perceptions, ways, discoveries

to propose, to plan, to produce, accuracy/accuracies, consistency/consistencies,

5.20 Production of Plan, or fallacies, reliabilities, flaws, errors, precision, exactness,
to design
Proposed Set of ends, means, efficiency, economy/economies, utility,
to modify, to specify alternatives, courses of action, standards, theories,
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Operations generalization

To produce, to derive, to sights, sounds, events, designs, arrangements

develop, to combine to organize,
5.30 Derivation of a Set of to synthesize, to classify, to
Abstract Relations deduce, to develop, to models, examples, shapes, sizes, meters, cadences,
formulate, to modify alternatives, answers, rhythms, nuances,

to judge to argue to validate, to directions, instructions, laws, policies, demonstrations

assess, to decide.
6.00 Evaluations
Instruments, games, dramatic works, charades,
to judge to argue to consider, to burlesques, speeches, plays, presentations, writings
compare, to contrast, to
6.10 Judgements in terms of standardize, to appraise
Internal Criteria

6.20 Judgments in terms of

External Criteria to differentiate, to separate, to

Affective set apart, to share,

1.0 Receiving to accumulate, to select,

to combine, to accept
1.1. Awareness to select, to posturally respond
1.2. Willingness to Receive to, to listen (for), to control

1.3. Controlled or Selected

Attention to comply (with), to follow,

to commend, to approve,
2.0 Responding

2.1 Acquiescence in
Responding to volunteer, to discuss, to
practice, to play, to applaud, to
acclaim

to spend leisure, time in, to

augment.
2.2. Willingness to Respond

2.3 Satisfaction in Response

KEY WORDS

Taxonomy Classification Examples of Infinitives Examples of Direct Objects

3.0 Valuing

3.1 Acceptance of a Value group membership(s)

to increase measured artistic production(s),

proficiency in, to increase
numbers of, to relinquish, musical productions,
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to specify personal friendships

3.2 Preference for a Value to assist, to subsidize, to help, to artists, projects, viewpoints, arguments
support

deceptions, irrelevancies, abdications, irrationalities

to deny, to protest, to debate, to
3.3. Commitment argue

4.0 Organization parameters, codes, standards, goals

to discuss, to theorize( (on),

4.1. Conceptualization of a to abstract, to compare systems, approaches, criteria, limits

Value

to balance, to organize, to
4.2. Organization of a Value define, to formulate

System

5.0 Characterization by Value plans, behavior, methods, effort(s)

or Value Complex

5.1 Generalized Set

humanitarianism, ethics, integrity, maturity
to revise, to change,

to complete, to require,
5.2. Characterization

to be rated high by peers in, extravagance(s), excesses, conflicts,

to be rated high by superiors in exorbitancy/exorbitancies
to be rated high by subordinates
in, and

to avoid, to manage,

to resolve to resist

MODULE No. 4.a

PREPARING A TABLE OF SPECIFICATION
Objectives
1. Identify the elements in a Table of Specification (TOS)
2. Draft a TOS for a 50-item test showing the content, objectives, type of examination, and item
placement.
3. Align the test items with the TOS.
Anticipatory Set
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Whatever we set to do well has to have a plan. For effective assessment of learning, we need to have a test plan. The test plan
or test blueprint must precede the preparation of test items. To ensure that the test covers all that have been discussed, and to
ensure that your test include items that measure lower- level thinking (LOT) and higher-level thinking (HOT), a test blueprint has
to be prepared. Much like a blueprint used by a builder to guide building construction, the test blueprint used a by teacher guides
test construction. The test blue print is also called table of specifications (TOS) and it is essential to good test construction.
Why Prepare a TOS?
The test blueprint or table of specification (TOS) ensures that a test will sample whether learning has taken place across the
range of:
1) Content areas covered in class and readings (modules and other self-learning materials (SLM)
2) Cognitive processes (recalling, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating and creating) considered important.
The TOS ensures that your test will include a variety of items that tap different levels of cognitive complexity or processes. It is
suggested that the blueprint should be assembled before you begin a unit.
What are the Basic Elements of a TOS?
Content Outline. The content outline lists the topic and the important objectives included under the topic. It is for these
objectives that you will write test items. Try to keep the total number of objectives to a manageable number, certainly no more
than are needed for any one unit.
Categories. The categories serve as a reminder or a check on the “cognitive complexity” of the test. Obviously, many
units over which you want to test will contain objectives that do not go beyond the comprehension level. However, the outline
can suggest that you try to incorporate higher levels of learning into your instruction and evaluations. In the cells under these
categories, report the number of items in your tests that are included in that level for a particular objective. See the example in
Table 1. There are five items to be constructed to measure comprehension level objective in Table 1.
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Table 1: Test Blueprint for a Unit on Instructional Objectives

Categories
Comprehension
AnalysisTotal Percentage
Application
Knowledge

Content outline

(Number of Items)

1. Role of Objectives

a. The student can state purposes for objectives in

education.
4 4 12
%

b. The student can describe a classroom system model

and the role of objectives in it.
1 1 3%

2. Writing Objectives

a. Given a general educational goal, the student will write

an instructional objective that specifies that goal.

5 5 14
%

b. The students can match instructional objectives with

their appropriate level in the cognitive domain.
5 5 14
%

c. The student can identify the three parts of an

objective: behavior, conditions, criteria.
5 5 14
%

d. The student can distinguish learning activities from

learning outcomes when given examples of each.
10 10 29
%

3. Decoding Ready-Made Objectives

a. Given instructional objectives in need of modification,

the student will rewrite the objective so that it is a
suitable instructional objective.
5 5 14
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Total 4 21 5 5 35

Percentage 12 60 14 14 100
% % % % %

___________________
Taken from:
Kubiszyn, Tom and Borich, Gary. (2007). Educational Testing and Measurement: Classroom
Application and Practice. Australia: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

N.B. USE THE TOS FORMAT PRESCRIBED BY YOUR SCHOOL.

Number of Items. Fill in the cells in Table 1, using the following procedure:
1. Determine the classification of each instructional objective.
2. Record the number of items that are to be constructed for the objective in the cell corresponding to the category for that
objective.
3. Repeat Steps 1 and 2 for every objective in the outline.
4. Total the number of items for the instructional objective and record the number in the Total column,
5. Repeat Steps 1 through 4 for each topic.
6. Total the number of items falling into each category and record the number at the bottom of the table.
7. Compute the column and row percentages by dividing each total by the number of items in the test.
Functions. The information in Table 1 is intended to convey to the teacher the following:
● How many items are to be constructed for which objectives and content topics.
● Whether the test will reflect a balanced picture of what was taught.
● Whether all topics and objectives will be assessed and their level of cognitive complexity.

Seldom can such “balance” be so easily attained. It requires considerable time and effort. However, a thoroughly
prepared test plan will serve both teacher and students well for improving the appropriateness of the test.
Major Points to Consider in Preparing a TOS:
1. A complete instructional objective includes
a) an observable learning outcome,
b) any special conditions under which the behavior must be displayed, and
c) a performance level considered to be indicative of mastery.

Example: The learner will compose an original 17-syllable haiku about nature following

a b

the 5-7-5 format with at least 2 adjectives and one adverb.

Example of an outcome of the objective:

Full moon up above (5 syllables) [full (moon) - 1 adjective)

brightly shining, lighting up [7 syllables [brightly (shining) – 1 adverb]

the cloudless skies. (5 syllables) [cloudless (skies) – I adjective]

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2. Learning outcomes are ends (products); learning activities are the means (processes) to the ends.
3. Objectives may be analyzed to determine their adequacy by
a) determining whether a learning outcome or learning activity is stated in the objective.
b) rewriting the objective if a learning is not stated,
c) determining whether the learning outcomes are stated in measurable or unmeasurable terms, and
d) determining whether the objective states the simplest and most direct way of measuring the learning outcome.
4. Learning outcomes and conditions stated in a test item must match the outcomes and conditions stated n the objective if
the item is to be considered a valid measure of or match for the objective.

Learning outcome: a haiku

Condition: an original composition of haiku following the 5-7-5 syllable format using at least 2

adjectives and 1 adverb.

5. The taxonomy of educational objectives for the cognitive domain helps categorize objectives at different levels of
cognitive complexity. There are six levels (using DEP Ed suggested categorization): recalling, understanding, applying,
analyzing, evaluating and creating).

The taxonomy level “to compose” is creating.

6. A test blueprint, including instructional objectives covering the content areas to be covered and the relevant cognitive
processes, should be constructed to guide item writing and test construction.

7. The test blueprint conveys to the teacher the number of items to be constructed per objective, their level of cognitive
complexity in the taxonomy, and whether the test represents a balanced picture based on what was taught.

MODULE No. 4.b

PRINCIPLES OF FORMULATING GOOD TEST ITEMS

A. Principles that apply to all good objective test items

1. Keep reading level and vocabulary appropriate to the purpose of the test;
2. Make sure each item has one correct/best answer;
3. Make sure the content is important (not trivial);
4. Keep items independent;
5. Avoid trick questions; and
6. Make sure the item poses a clear problem.
B. Principles to be followed in writing true-false items
1. Ensure that each statement is unequivocally true or false;
2. Avoid specific determiners;
3. Avoid ambiguous terms of amount;
4. Avoid negative statements;
5. Limit each item to a single idea;
6. Make true and false statements approximately equal in length; and
7. Have about the same number of true statements as false ones.

C. Principles to be followed in writing multiple-choice items

1. Be sure the stem formulates a clear problem;
2. Include as much of the item in the stem as possible to reduce reading load;
3. Include only necessary material in the item;
4. Avoid negatively worded items;
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5. Use novel material to assess comprehension and application objectives;

6. Be sure there is only one correct answer;
7. Be sure wrong answers are plausible;
8. Avoid unintentional clues to the correct answer; and
9. Use sparingly the “none of these” and “all of these” response alternatives.

D. Principles to be followed in writing matching items

1. Write more items than you intend to use;
2. Proofread the items carefully;
3. Arrange the items in a readable form;
4. Plan a layout that enables you to use separate answer sheets;
5. Group items by format and by content;
6. Arrange items by difficulty;
7. Prepare specific directions for each type of item;
8. Make sure one item does not give away the answer to another; and
9. Make sure there is no systematic pattern to the correct answers.

MODULE No. 5

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY

Objective:
The students will analyze, interpret, and use test data applying:
a) Measures of central tendency,
b) Measures of variability
c) Measures of skewness

A. The Measures of Central Tendency

When describing the performance of a group of individuals, we use a single measure to report the profile, we use
either the mean, median, mode . When we group the scores into a given interval (e.g. 5-unit interval) we use the mode to
determine which score occurs the most frequently.

Measures of central tendency - Provide statistics that indicate the average or typical observation in the distribution. There
are three measures of central tendency: mean, median, and mode.

Mean – The arithmetic average of all the scores in the distribution. It is calculated by summing all the observations in the
distribution and then dividing this sum by the number (n) of observations.

Median – The median is the middle score of the distribution, the point that divides a rank-ordered distribution into halves
containing an equal number observations (data). Thus, 50 percent of the data lie below the median and 50 percent lie above
the median. The median is unaffected by the values of the observations.

Mode – The observation (data, score) in the distribution that occurs most frequently, It is a crude index of central tendency and
it is not used very much in research. Sometimes, distributions have more than one most frequent observation. Such
distributions are bimodal, trimodal or multimodal.

You have learned how to compute for the mean, median and mode in high school and in your undergraduate courses. If you
have forgotten how, consult any book in statistics to help you recall the process.

B. Normal and skewed distributions

A score distribution of a sample has a “normal distribution” when most of the values are aggregated around the mean,
and the number of values decrease as you move below or above the mean. If the three measures – mean, median and mode –
are equal, the score distribution shows a perfectly normal distribution, a perfect bell-shaped or symmetrical shape is formed. If
the mean is less than the median and the mode, the score distribution is negatively skewed. Conversely, if the mean is greater
than the median and the mode, the score distribution shows a positively skewed distribution. if scores tend to be high because
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the teacher taught very well and students are highly motivated to learn, the score distribution tends to be negatively skewed.
Conversely, when students score very low, for one reason or another, the skewness tends to be positive.

C. Measure of Variability
Central tendency is only one index used to represent a group of data. In order to provide a full description, a second
statistical measure is also needed. This statistic is referred to as a measure of variability. Measures of variability show how
spread out the distribution of data from the mean of the distribution, or, how much, on the average, data differ from the mean.
Variability measures are also referred to in general terms as measures of dispersion, scatter, or spread.
Variability tells about the difference between the data of the distribution. While such words as high, low, great, little, and much to
describe the degree of variability, it is necessary to have more precise indices. Two common measures of variability are the
range and the standard deviation.
The Range
The range is the most obvious measure of dispersion. It is simply the difference between the greatest value (data) and the least
value (data). If the oldest in the class is 50 and the youngest is 22 years old, the age range would therefore be 28 (50-22=28).
Since there are only two data involved in calculating the range, it is very simple to obtain. It is, however, also a very crude
measure of dispersion, and can be misleading if there is an atypically high or low data. The range also fails to indicate anything
about the variability of scores around the mean of the distribution.
Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a numerical index that indicates the average variability of the data. It indicates the distance, on the
average, of the data from the mean. A distribution that has a relatively heterogeneous set of data that spread out widely from
the mean will have a larger standard deviation than a homogeneous set of data that cluster around the mean. The first step in
calculating the standard deviation (abbreviated SD, or sigma, or s) is to find the distance between each score and the mean,
thus determining the amount that each data deviates, or differs, from the mean. In one sense, the standard deviation is simply
the average of all the deviation scores.

Take the following sets of data:

Scores of TEAM A (5 students) in a spelling test Scores of TEAM B (5 students) in the same test
of ten difficult words
Dana 10 Amaya 8
Berta 10 Cindy 9
Quirino 10 Paul 10
David 10 Stephen 6
Sarah 10 Pippa 7
What is the mean? _______ What is the mean? ____________
What is the standard deviation? ______ What is the standard deviation? _______
USE YOUR CALCULATOR TO COMPUTE
For the standard deviation for Team B
COMPUTING GUIDE 3 – Determining the Mean and
Standard Deviation for Grouped Data

A. Begin with the raw scores 7 43 27 44 27 27 26 31 35 42 50

(these are scores of 75 ninth- 35 43 36 26 50 47 36 26 32 32 38
grade boys on Bennett Form 36 21 24 40 39 35 38 36 38 21 17
AA) 26 35 22 18 50 30 38 50 16 45 8
34 26 34 28 41 27 39 41 30 23 33
22 31 36 40 54 24 22 8 33 42 41
41 31 34 36 32 20 22 34 41
B. Identify the highest score Highest score = 54; lowest score = 8;
and the lowest score. If there range = 47. Class interval of 5 will be used.
is a wide range, choose a (A smaller interval, such as 2, would be
class interval of 1, 2, 5, 10, preferable but would be inconvenient in this
15 | P a g e

MODULE No. 6
STANDARD SCORES
I. Objectives:

1. Convert raw scores to standard scores: z-scores and T-scores

2. Illustrate graphically the --
a) standard deviation of a normal distribution, the 68-95-99.7 rule;
b) The s-cores and
c) T-scores

II. Anticipatory Set

Take note of the following points to remember about the measures of central tendency and variability, the topics of
Module 5.
Measures of Central Tendency
 The statistics that represent the typical, or average or middle, score of a group of scores. The mode is simply the most
frequently occurring score in a distribution.
 A very simple way of identifying the typical score is to pick the one that occurs most frequently. This score is called the
mode and corresponds to the highest point in the frequency polygon.
 A much more useful way of representing the typical, or average, score is to find the value on the score scale that
separates the top half of the group from the bottom half. This value is called the median.
 The mean is the arithmetical average of a set of scores. It is obtained by adding all the scores in a distribution and
dividing the sum by the number of scores.
Measures of Variability

 Measures of variability are used to show the differences among the scores in a distribution. The term variability or
dispersion is used because the statistics provide an indication of how different, or dispersed, the scores are from one
another.
 The range is the crudest measure of variability. It is the difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a
distribution.
 The standard deviation as a measure of variability is the numerical index that indicates average dispersion or spread
of scores around the mean.
 The nearer the value of the standard deviation to zero, the more homogeneous the observations (raw scores) are;
conversely, the bigger the standard deviation, the more heterogenous the observations are.

III. Lesson Proper

A. The Standard Deviation of a Normal Distribution
The total area under the normal curve represents all the observations in a normal distribution. In such a curve, the
mean, median and mode are identical, so that the mean falls at the exact center of the curve. It thus is also the
most frequent observation in the distribution. Because the curve is symmetrical, 50 percent of the observations
must fall on each side of the mean.
Here are some important facts about the normal distribution:
1. Fifty percent of all the observations (e.g. ages of respondents) fall on each side of the mean.
2. In any normal distribution, 68 percent of the observations fall within one standard deviation of the mean, half
of these (34 percent) fall within one standard deviation away from the mean and the other half within one
standard deviation below the mean.
3. Another 27 percent of the observations fall between one and two standard deviations away from the mean.
Hence 95 percent (68 percent plus 27 percent) fall within two standard deviations of the mean.
4. In all. 99.7 percent of the observations fall within three standard deviations of the mean. [The 68-95-99.7
rule]

B. The z-score and the Normal Curve

The simplest form of standard score is the z score. It expresses how far an observation is from the mean in
standard deviation units. A raw data (observation) that is exactly on the mean correspondents to a z score
16 | P a g e

of zero. A raw data that is exactly one standard deviation above the mean equals a z score of +1, while a
raw data that is exactly one standard deviation below the mean equals a z score of -1. Similarly, a raw data
that is exactly two standard deviations above the mean equals a z score of +2, and so forth. One z,
therefore, equals one standard deviation (1z = 1SD), 2z = 2Sd, -0.5z = -0.5 SD, and so on.

Calculation of the z-Score

After the mean and standard deviation are calculated for a set of scores, it is easy to convert each raw score
to a z-score, which then indicates exactly where each score lies in the normal distribution.
The formula for calculating a z-score is:
Raw score -- Mean
Standard Deviation

C. T-Score

One limitation of using z-scores is the necessity for being careful with the negative sign and with the decimal
point. To avoid these problems, other standard scores are used by converting the z-scores algebraically to
different units. The general formula for converting z-scores is

A = MeanA + sA (z)
where A is the new standard score equivalent to z
MeanA is the mean for the new standard-score scale.
sA is the standard deviation for the new standard-score scale,
z is the s-score for any observation.

For T-scores, which are very common, MeanA = 50 and sA = 10. The equation for converting z-scores to
T-scores is thus:

T = 50 + 10(z).

For example, the T=scores for the given raw scores below would be:
For the raw score of 20: T = 50 + 10 (2.02 = 70.2
For the raw score of 14: T = 50 + 10 (0.29) = 52.9.
For the raw score of 10: T = 50 + 10 (-0.87) = 41.3.

The important thing to remember is that all standard scores are based on the normal distribution. Consequently, if a set of raw
scores is distributed abnormally, conversion to standard scores may bias the results or be misleading.

D. Probability and z-Score

Another important characteristic of the normal distribution is that the percentages associated with areas
under the normal curve can be thought of as probabilities. A probability is a percent stated in decimal form
and refers to the likelihood of an event occurring. For example, if there is a probability that an event will
occur 25 percent of the time, this event can be said to have a probability of .25. Similarly, an event that will
probably occur 90 percent of the time is said to have a probability of .90. More discussion of probabilities
will come later in the course.

MODULE No. 7
MEASURES OF RELATIONSHIPS
I. Objectives:

3. Determine relationships of two sets of scores

4. Calculate two common correlation coefficients:
a) Pearson Product-Moment (Pearson r)
b) Spearman Rank ( r ranks or Spearman rho)

II. Anticipatory Set

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Teachers conducting action research sometimes explore correlation of variables of interest, for example, the
relationship between achievement scores in mathematics and science; the relationship between scores in vocabulary and
reading comprehension tests, etc. In these cases, measures of relationships are called for. In this module, two commonly used
measures of relationships are presented with illustrative examples.
III. Lesson Proper
Measures of relationship are used to indicate the degree to which two sets of scores covary of are related. We
intuitively seek relationships by such statements as: “If high scores in variable X tend to be associated with high scores on
variable Y, then the variables are related,” or “ If high scores on variable X tend to be associated with low scores on variable Y,
then the variables are related.” Relationships can be either positive or negative and either strong or weak.
We use correlation coefficient as a statistical summary of the nature of the relationship between two variables.
Correlation coefficients provide us with an estimate of the quantitative degree of relationship. The correlation coefficient ranges
from -1.0 to + 1.0. Values close to -1.0 or +1.0 indicate a strong linear relationship. The closer the correlation is to zero, the
weaker the relationship.

How to calculate the two most common correlation coefficients are shown here.

A. Pearson Product-Moment (Pearson r)

The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient is the most widely used measure of relationship. The Pearson r is
calculated to show the linear relationship between two variables. To compute the Pearson r, two measures on each subject are
needed. Suppose, for example, we have a group of ten subjects, and for each subject we have measures of self-concept and
achievement. We can calculate the Pearson r between self-concept and achievement for these ten subjects, using the following
formula:

N ∑ XY −( ∑ X ) (∑ Y )
Pearson r =
√ N ∑ X 2−( ∑ X )2 • √ N ∑ Y 2−(∑ Y )2
Where ∑XY is the sum of the XY cross products,

∑X is the sum of the X scores.

∑Y is the sum of Y scores.

∑X2 is the sum of the squared X scores.

∑ Y2 is the sum of the squared Y scores, and

N is the number of pairs of scores.

This formula may appear complex but is actually easy to calculate. The scores can be listed in a table, as
shown below; to use it, one simply finds the values for each summation formula, substitutes where appropriate, and performs the
math indicated.

Self-Concept Achievement
Score Score
Subject X X
2
Y Y
2
X •Y
1 25 625 85 7225 2125
2 20 400 90 8100 1800
3 21 441 80 6400 1680
4 18 324 70 4900 1260
5 15 225 75 5625 1125
6 17 289 80 6400 1360
7 14 196 75 5625 1050
8 15 225 70 4900 1050
9 12 144 75 5625 900
10 13 169 60 3600 780
∑x = 170 2
∑x = ∑Y = 760 2
∑ Y = 3038 ∑X•Y = 13130
2 2
(∑ x ) = 3038 (∑ Y ) =577600
28900
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Step 1: Pair each set of scores; one set becomes X, the other Y
Step 2: Calculate ∑X and ∑Y
Step 3: Calculate x 2 and Y 2
Step 4: Calculate ∑ x 2 and ∑ Y 2
Step 5: Calculate (∑ x )2 and (∑ Y )2
Step 6: Calculate X•Y
Step 7: Calculate ∑X•Y
Step 8: Substitute calculated values into formula

10 (13130 )−(170)(760)
Pearson r =
√10 ( 3038 )−28900 • √ 10 (58400 )−577600
131300−129200
=
√30380−28900 • √ 584000−577600
2100
=
√1480 • √6400
2100
=
( 38.47 ) •(80)

2100
=
3078

= 0.68

The value of 0.68 shows a moderate positive relationship between self-concept and achievement for this set of scores.
B. Spearman Rank (r ranks or Spearman rho)

The Spearman rho is used when ranks are available on each of two variables for all subjects. Ranks are simply listings
of scores from highest to lowest. The Spearman rho correlation shows the degree to which subjects maintain the same relative
position on two measures. In other words, the Spearman rho indicates how much agreement there is between the ranks of each
variable.
The calculation of the Spearman ranks is simpler than calculating the Pearson r. The necessary steps are

Step 1: Tank the Xs and Ys

Step 2: Pair the ranked Xs and Ys.
Step 3: Calculate the difference in ranks for each pair.
Step 4: Square each difference.
Step 5: Sum the squared differences.
Step 6: Substitute calculated values into formula

The formula is
2
6∑D
Spearman rho = 2
n(n −1)
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For the data used in calculating the Pearson r, the Spearman rho would be found as follows:

Self-Concept Achievement
Score Score
Subject X Y D D
2

1 1 2 −1 1
2 3 1 2 4
3 2 3.5 −1.5 2.25
4 4 5.5 −1.5 2.25
5 6.5 8 −1.5 2.25
6 5 3.5 1.5 2.25
7 8 8 0 0
8 6.5 5.5 1 1
9 10 8 2 4
10 9 10 −1 1
∑ D 2 = 20

Note: When ties in the ranking occur, all scores that are tied receive the average of the ranks
involved.

6(20)
r ranks = 1−
10(100−1)

120
= 1− ¿
900 ¿

= 1−0.12

= 0.88

In most data sets with more than 50 subjects, the Pearson r and Spearman rank will give almost identical correlations.
In the example illustrated here the Spearman is higher because of the low n and the manner in which the ties in rankings
resulted low difference scores.

Interpretation of Correlation Coefficients when Testing Research Hypothesis (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2013)

Magnitude of r Interpretation
.00 -- .40 Of little practical importance except in unusual circumstances;
Perhaps of theoretical value
.41 -- .60 Large enough to be of practical as well as theoretical value
.61 -- .80 Very important, but rarely obtained in educational research
.81 or above Possibly an error in calculation; if not, a very sizable relationship.

MODULE No. 8
ITEM ANALYSIS
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IV. Objectives:
5. Determine the difficulty index, discrimination index and plausibility of options (for a selected response test)
6. Evaluate the quality of a test item given the values for difficulty index and discrimination index.

V. Anticipatory Set
To serve the purpose for which the test items are constructed and administered (validity), they have to be of good
quality. Review the principles summarized for you in ATTACHMENT SM-8. Item analysis is one way of determining the quality
of a good test item. The process is laborious but easy to do. The process is illustrated in this module.
VI. Lesson Proper
The first step in performing an item analysis is the tabulation of the responses that have been made to each item of
the test – i.e., how many individuals got each item correct, how many chose each of the possible incorrect items, and how many
skipped the items. You must have this information from the upper and lower sections of the group, based on the total test score.
From this type of tabulation, you will be able to answer the following questions:
[Link] difficult is the item?
2. Does the item distinguish between the higher and lower scoring examinees?
3. Do some of the examinees select all the options? Or are there some options that no examinees chose?

There are two important characteristics of an item that will be of interest to the teacher:

(a) item difficulty (Di) or other books call it item facility, and

(b) power of discrimination (Dp).

Difficulty Index. The difficulty of an item or item difficulty (Di) is defined as the number of students who are able to
answer the item correctly divided by the total number of students. Thus:

Di = Number of students with correct answers/ Total number of students.

The item difficulty is expressed as a proportion (in decimal) or in percentage (%). {See Column 8).

Table 1 shows a hypothetical date set of multiple choice items:

Table 1. Tabulation of Hypothetical Test Data Set
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
O p t i o n s

Item No Difficulty Discrimination Remarks (or

Number A B C D Answer Index (Di)** Index (Dp)** Action to take)
(NA)

Upper 4 6 5 10* -
------- ------- ------- ------- ______ .31 or 31% .20 or 20% Difficult; Revise
Group - - - -
1. 1
-------- 8 2 9 5

Lower

Group

Good item;
Upper 5 2 18* 0 - Moderately
------- ------- ------- ------- --------- .52 or 52% .40 0r 40% difficult; Has good
Group - - - - discriminating
2. - power; But Option
------- 10 7 8 0 D is implausible;
Modify or change
21 | P a g e

Lower the option

Group
Good item;
Upper 20* 0 0 5 Moderately
------- ------- ------- ------- .58 or 58% .44 or 44% difficult;
Group - 8 - - Has good
3. 9 0 8 discriminating
-------- power; Replace
Option C.
Lower

Group

Upper 25* 0 0 0
------- ------- ------- ------- ? ? ?
Group - 9 - -
4. 8 2 6
--------

Lower

Group
*Keyed answer
** Rounded to the nearest hundredths
Columns 2, 3, 4, &5 show the distribution of the examinees who selected the options A, B, C & D, respectively,
The test performance of the examinees was split into high performance (Upper Group) and low performance (Lower
Group) as shown in Column 1) and the answers were distributed across their selected options. Thus, among the examinees in
the Upper Group, 4 selected Option A; 6 selected Option B; 5 selected Option C and 10, selected Option D, the correct answer.
The same distribution procedure was done for the Lower Group examinees.
From the data in Table 1, figure out the answer to the following questions:1.
1. What is the total number of test takers (examinees)? _____
[Link] many from the Lower Group did not answer (See Column 6)? ____
[Link] are the values in Column 7 (Di) arrived at? _________________________________________
4. How are the values in Column 8 (Dp) arrived at? ________________________________________
Be guided by the following interpretation if you are looking for good items to include in a test to be standardized:

Range of Difficulty Index (Di) Interpretation Remarks (Action to take)

0.00 - 0.25 Difficult Revise or discard

0.26 - 0.75 Right difficulty Retain

0.76 - above Easy Revise or discard

However, if you trying to find out the mastery level of your pupils’ conceptual pr procedural understanding of a
lesson you’ve taught (formative assessment), the following interpretation used by Dep Ed will be helpful:

0.75 and above Mastered Move on to the next lesson

0.45 - 0.74 Not quite mastered Reinforce

0.00 - 0.44 Not mastered Reteach

Discrimination Index (Dp). Discrimination index is the difference between the proportion of the top scorers who got an
item correct and the proportion of the lowest scorers who got the item right. The discrimination index ranges from -1 to +1. The
22 | P a g e

closer the discrimination index to +1, the more effectively the item can discriminate or distinguish between the two groups of
examinees. A negative discrimination index means more from the lower group got the item correctly.

To calculate the discriminating power of an item, use the following formula:

Dp = Ru + Rl

½T

Where: Dp = Discriminating power

Ru = The number in the upper group who answered the item correctly

Rl = The number in the lower group who answered the item correctly.

T = Total number of Ru and Rl

The discriminating power of an item is reported as a decimal fraction: maximum discriminating power is indicated by an
index of 1.00.

ScorePak® classifies item discrimination “good,” “fair,” or “poor,” with the following values:

0.30 = Good

0.10 = Fair

Below 0.10 = Poor.

Using discrimination indexes. The simplest way to use the discrimination index for test development is to retain the
items with the highest value (e.g. over 0.50), to eliminate the ones with the lowest (e.g. below 0.20, and to consider for
modification those between these two points. Items with negative discrimination values should, of course be rejected. In trying
to determine why an item has a low index, look first at item difficulty. Items that are too easy or too hard are almost always poor
discriminators.

Maximum discrimination is usually found at 50% level of difficulty.

0.00 = 0.20 = Very difficult

0.21 = 0.80 = Moderately difficult

0.81 = 1.00 = Very easy

Plausibility of Distractors. It is also important to note the plausibility of the distractors. If both the high scorers and low
scorers do not select an option or distractor, it is an implausible distracter. It has to be replaced. Hence, for the distracters to be
effective, they must appear plausible enough to attract those who do not know the correct answer or are just guessing.

MODULE No. 1 (a)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT: SELF ASSESSMENT
A very important document that you must always have in hand is Department Order No. 8,
series of 2015. If you don’t have this document in your file yet, please try to get one. YOU MUST HAVE A COPY OF THIS! In
Assessment of Learning 1, you have learned the differentiation of Assessment FOR, Assessment AS and Assessment OF
learning. If you haven’t mastered the terminologies, go back to the DO No. 8 and review the terminologies. It is also well
explained in Navarro, Santos & Corpus’ book Assessment in Learning, pp. 15-16. Read the two- page explanation.

Self assessment is an essential process in assessment AS learning. Self-assessment (of your own performance/work) should
start with assessing yourself. So, this Module will ask you to do a couple of exercises in assessing yourself.

I. Objectives: The readings and activities will enable you to:

1. Situate the course Assessment of Learning in the Teacher Education Program, particularly as part of
Professional Education;
23 | P a g e

2. State the importance of self-assessment or self-evaluation in developing management strategies for self-
improvement
3. Write a reflection about the activities performed in own journal.

II. Anticipatory Set

A. Read Attachment M-1 and locate where assessment is needed in instructional delivery. Be mindful of the
highlighted portions in ATTACHMENT M-1.
B. Note the terminologies in the Attachment that you did not understand and be sure to search them online or in
printed materials.
C. Review the concepts Assessment FOR, AS and OF learning in the book cited above.

III. Lesson Proper

A. Teachers are required to participate in the development and evaluation of behavioral intervention plans to assist children
to acquire skills in managing themselves and in helping themselves attain maximum learning in the classroom. A
teacher must first learn to acquire the skills that he/she would like the learners to demonstrate, hence the activities
provided in this module for you to start learning how to do self-assessment

B. Writing about yourself narrating the events in your life is termed as autobiography. Writing an autobiography is one
way of reflecting on significant events in your life and a way of knowing yourself. Another way of knowing yourself is
writing journals.

Journals in which students write about their personal reactions to events and their experiences are a good way for
students to know more about themselves. Students can maintain a personal journal or a dialogue journal. In the
personal journal, students write about their own lives, including such topics as family members, friends, feelings,
hobbies and personal events. The dialogue journal, in which the teacher and his/her students write confidential
responses to each other, can motivate students to write while promoting a good relationship between the teacher and
his/her students.

ATTACHMENT M-1 (3)

Metacognition

If you teach a person what to learn, you are preparing that person for the past.
If you teach a person how to learn, you are preparing that person for the future.
Cyril Houte

The word “metacognition” was coined by John Flavell which means “thinking about thinking,” or “learning how to learn.”
It refers to higher order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.
Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control
cognitive processes. Flavell further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories: knowledge of person variables,
task variables and strategy variables.

Person variables – include how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to
knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one’s own learning
processes.

Task variables – include knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will
place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished gauging its difficulty and knowing that kind
of effort it will demand from you.
Strategy variables – involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this
strategy os effective.
Related terms: meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on
the topic or task at hand. Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you.
Omrod includes the following in the practice of metacognition:
- Knowing one’s limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities
- Knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a certain amount of time
- Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not
- Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful
24 | P a g e

- Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material

- Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension
- Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
- Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it is keenly used in a purposeful manner to ensure that a goal is met.
Huitt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the following types questions:
- What do I know about this subject, topic, issue?
- Do I know what I need to know?
- Do I know where I can go to get some information, knowledge?
- How much time will I need to learn this?
- What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this.
- Did I understand what I just heard, read or saw?
- How will I know if I am learning at an appropriate rate?
- How can I spot an error if I make one?
- How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my expectation /satisfaction?

MODULE No. 2 (b)

AUTHENTIC ASSESSMENT AND PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT
In Module 1, you accomplished a metacognition exercise. It’s a tool for self-assessment, and because you assessed
yourself, how you feel about certain things in your real life, the tool is an authentic activity. After completing your lessons in
Assessment of Learning 2, go back to the same assessment tool, assess yourself again with the same tool, and determine
whether there had been changes in you. Meanwhile, put the Metacognitive Assessment tool in your portfolio of alternative
assessment tools which will be your project in this course. You will learn more about authentic assessment and portfolio
assessment in this Module.
I. Objectives: The readings in this module and the exercises will enable you to:
1. Define authentic tasks and authentic assessment;
2. Characterize the authentic assessment process;
3. Define portfolio assessment; and
4. State the advantages of using classroom portfolios.

II. Anticipatory Set

Did you give candid responses to the Metacognitive Exercise? What did you learn about yourself? I hope to read your reflection
when I collect your write up on May 22, 2022 online . Your project in this course is to come up with a collection of alternative
assessment tools which you can pattern the development of your own alternative assessment tools in the future.
How you will be rated in this course will be as follows:

Bases for marking Weight (%)

A. Complete exercises/performance tasks in your notebook or a complete set of
exercises done in loose sheets of bond paper put together in a folder or
envelop…………………………………………………………………………………………………..……….…50
B. Compilation of alternative assessment tools………………………………………………………20
C. Long quizzes and Final Examination……………………………………………………………………30
Total 100

III. Lesson Proper

Read the content of Module 2 in ATTACHMENTS M-2 (1) and M-2 (2)

You can also read pp. 50 – 53 in Navarro, Rosita L.; Santos, Rosita G. and Corpuz, Brenda B. (2019).
Assessment in Learning. Quezon City, Lorimar Publishing, Inc.

IV. Evaluation: Please be prepared for the test which will be given to you as the last module
25 | P a g e

ATTACHMENT M-2 (1)

Assessment must be anchored in and focused on authentic tasks because they supply varied direction, intellectual coherence,
and motivation for the day-in and day-out work of knowledge and skill development. Such tasks are never mastered the first
time out. Eventual excellence at all complex tasks depends on how well we learn to use feedback and guidance as we confront
such tasks repeatedly. Thus we ultimately develop excellence and autonomy by getting progressively better at self-
assessment and self-adjustment, Student self-adjustment must become central to nt AS, and assessment OF learning.

Authentic assessment is true assessment of performance because we learn whether students can intelligently use what they
have learned in situations that increasingly approximate adult situations, and whether they can innovate In new situations.
(Wiggins, 1998).

Standards for authentic assessment

An assessment task or tasks, problem or project is authentic if it:

1. Is realistic. The task(s) replicate the ways in which a person’s knowledge and abilities are “tested” in real-world
situations.
2. Requires judgement and innovation. The student has to use knowledge and skills wisely and effectively to solve
unstructured problems, such as when a plan must be designed, and the solution involves more than following a set
routine or procedure or plugging in knowledge.
3. Asks the student to “do” the subject. Instead of reciting, restating, or replicating through demonstration what he or she
was taught or what is already known, the student has to carry out exploration and work within the discipline of science,
history, or any other subject.
4. Replicates or simulates the contexts in which adults are “tested” in the workplace, in civic life, and in personal life.
Contexts involve specific situations that have particular constraints, purposes, and audiences. Typical school tests are
contextless. Students need to experience what it is like to do tasks in workplace and other real-life contexts, which tend
to be messy
and murky. In other words, genuine require good judgement….
5. Assess the student’s ability to efficiently and effectively use a repertoire of knowledge and skill to negotiate a complex
task. Most conventional test items are isolated elements of performance – similar to sideline drills in athletics rather
than to the integrated use of skills that a game requires….
6. Allows appropriate opportunities to rehearse, practice, consult resources, and get feedback on and refine performances
and products. Makes use the cycle of performance-feedback-revision-performance on the production of known high
quality products and standards.

The key differences between traditional and authentic tasks are reflected in Table 1.

Table 1. Key Differences Between Typical (Traditional) Tests and Authentic Tasks*

Typical (Traditional) Tests Authentic Tasks Indicators of Authenticity

Require correct responses only Require quality products and/or We assess whether the student can explain, apply, self-
performance, and justification adjust, or justify answers not just correctness of answers
using facts and algorithms.
Must be unknown in advance to Are known as much as possible The tasks, criteria, and standards by which work will be
ensure validity in advance; involve excelling at judged are predictable or known – like the recital piece,
predictable demanding and core the play, engine to be fixed, proposal to a client, etc.
tasks; are not “gotcha!”
experiences.
Are disconnected from a Require real-world use of The task is a challenge and a set of constraints that are
realistic context and realistic knowledge: the students must authentic – likely to be encountered by the professional,
constraints “do” history, science, etc. in citizen or consumer. (“Know-how,” is required.)
realistic simulations or actual
use.
Contain isolated items requiring Are integrated challenges in The task is multifaceted and non-routine, even if there is a
use of recognition of known which knowledge and judgment “right” answer. It thus requires problem clarification, trial
answers or skills must be innovatively used to and error, adjustments, adapting to the case or facts at
fashion a quality product or hand, etc.
performance.
Are simplified so as to be easy Involve complex and The task involves the important aspects of performance
to score reliably nonarbitrary tasks, criteria, and and/or core challenges of the field of study, not easily
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standards scored; does not sacrifice validity for reliability.

Are one shot Are iterative: contain recurring The work is designed to reveal whether the student has
essential tasks, genres, and achieved real versus pseudo mastery, or understanding
standards versus mere familiarity, over time.
Depend on highly technical Provide direct evidence, The task is valid and fair on its face. It thus evokes
correlations involving tasks that have been student interest and persistence, and seems apt and
validated against core adult challenging to students & teachers.
roles and discipline-based
challenges
Provide a score Provide usable, diagnostic The assessment is designed not merely to audit
(sometimes concurrent) performance but to improve future performance. The
feedback: the student is able to student is seen the primary “customer” of information
confirm results and self-adjust
as needed.
Authenticity is a matter of degree. Degrees of authenticity is shown in the table below:

Inauthentic Somewhat realistic Authentic

Explain a data set Design a house using specific Design & build a model house that meets standards &
mathematical formulas and client demands
shapes
Write a paper on laws Write a persuasive essay on Write a proposal to present to appropriate legislators to
why a law should be changed change a current law.
Read a teacher-chosen text Read to class a self-selected Make an audiotape of a story for use in library.
segment text.
ATTACHMENT M-2 (2)
PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENTS

Background: Portfolios have recently emerged as powerful tools in education. They fall into the category of “performance
assessment” where students collect their work samples to show what they have learned. Portfolios are a collection of a child’s
work and teacher data from formal performance assessments to evaluate development and learning (Wortham, 2001).
Portfolios may contain observation reports, checklists, work samples, records of directed assignments, interviews, or other
evidence of achievement.

Why Use Portfolios? Portfolios provide information that traditional paper-and-pencil tests cannot. They provide a
demonstration of academic skills that helps teachers and students make informal decisions about instruction (Zimmerman,
1993). Experts explain these purposes for the use of portfolios:

1. To be more sensitive to the needs of students’ diverse learning abilities (Glazer, 1998).
2. To develop a holistic picture of the activities the student has engaged in over a period of time (Wrotham, 2001)
3. To provide visible evidence of a student’s progress in relation to goals (Tomlinson and Allan, 2000).
4. To make the assessment process of evaluating, revising, and re-evaluating fundamentally a learning process (Darling-
Hamman et al. 1995)
5. To help students think about how their work meets established criteria, analyze their efforts, and plan for improvement
(Rolheiser et al., 2000).
6. To reveal of range of skills and understandings and to value student and teacher reflection (Vavrus, 1990).

Gronlund (1998) proposes that portfolios have a number of advantages that make their use worthwhile in the classroom which
are:
1. Learning progress over time can be clearly shown (e.g., changes in writing skills).
2. Focusing on students’ best work provides influence on learning (e.g. best writing samples).
3. Comparing work to past work fosters motivation than comparison to the work of others (e.g., growth in writing skills).
4. Self-assessment skills are increased when students select the best samples of their work and justify their choices (e.g. focus
is on criteria of good writing).
5. Portfolios provide for adjustment to individual differences (e.g., students write their own level but work toward common goals).
6. Portfolios provide for clear communication of learning progress to students, parents and others (e.g., writing samples obtained
at different times can be shown and compared.

Assessment tools that may be included in portfolios:

1. videos and performances 6. graphic organizers 11. logs and journals
2. projects 7. peer evaluations 12. observation checklists
3. cooperative works 8. computer programs etc….etc….etc….etc….etc….etc.
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4. simulations 9. self assessments

5. artwork 10. musical pieces

Self-assessmen
The real power of the portfolio emerges when students describe the work they include, discuss the key concepts they have
learned, and most importantly, reflect on how this learning has affected them. A portfolio is really a multisensory and
multidimensional personification of a student’s learning. As Gronlund (1998) warns, “Simply collecting samples of student work
and putting it in a file does not provide for effective use of the portfolio
According to Rolheiser, Bower and Stevahn (2000), “Reflection happens when students think about how their work meets
established criteria: they analyze the effectiveness of their efforts, and plan for improvement. Reflecting on what has been
learned and articulating that learning to others is the heart and soul of the portfolio process. Without reflection, a portfolio had
little meaning.”

Costa ad Kallick (1992) warn, “We must constantly remind ourselves that the ultimate purpose of evaluation is to have students
become self-evaluating. If students graduate from our schools still dependent upon others to tell them when they are adequate,
good, or excellent, then we have missed the whole point of what education is about.”

Types of Portfolios

1. Personal Portfolios (Scrapbook portfolio). The entire portfolio focuses on students’ hobbies, community activities, musical
or artistic talents, sports, families, pets, travels.

2. Best Work Portfolio. This type of portfolio allows students to select entries from all the work they have done. Student choice
forms and important components. This type of portfolio highlights the strengths of the students and helps their sense of self-
esteem and self-worth.

3. Content Portfolio. For example, language arts teachers may ask students to include one example of each of the their content
portfolios: narrative essay, expository essay, persuasive essay, response t literature, poem, letters, research paper, and book
report. The teacher may require that one persuasive essay be included in the portfolio, but the student chooses which
persuasive essay to include.

MODULE No. 3 (d)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT: WRITING AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY
Introduction

A classroom teacher’s very first task is to know her/his students. Said David Ausubel, “Know where your students are and start
from there.” You may know where your students are but knowing how they get there is something else to think about especially
if the student is not getting where he/she ought to be. There are barriers to learning that a teacher must uncover. One way of
getting to know one’s students is to let them write an autobiography. However, they need some guide to write an autobiography.
Module No. 3 is all about writing an autobiography. A would-be teacher should be able to write one himself/herself. So this
lesson is for you, too.

Objectives

The guide for writing an autobiography in ATTACHMENT M-3 (1) will enable you to:

1. narrate one milestone accomplishment in your stay in college, one that has given you a sense of
accomplishment as you go through college (or narrate an episode that has hindered you from giving the best of
your performance)
2. Devise a self-monitoring strategy that will help you to stay focused (not be distracted) while in college.

I. Advance organizer
There are many happenings while you are in the course of your college work that can “make or unmake” you.
Everything that happens in your life, pleasant or harsh, becomes a part of you. Life will be more pleasant to live if we
dwell on the more pleasant memories. Lesson Proper
ATTACHMENT M-3 (1)

AN AUTOBIOGRAPHY: A GUIDE TO WRITING ONE

Why you chose to become a teacher

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 Have you had a lifelong dream of becoming a teacher?

 What set of circumstances in your life brought you into the teaching field?
 Who influenced you most as you were growing up or as you were making decisions about your life’s work?

Your personal attributes

 What attributes do you have that would make you a good teacher?
 Are you a warm and nurturing person who is especially encouraging to others?
 Do you have a professional demeanor and business-like attitude?
 Do you hold high expectations for your own success and for the success of our students?
 Have you overcome some personal obstacles that would help you empathize with students who must do the same
thing?

SUPPLEMENTARY MODULE for Module No. 1 (MODULE E)

ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT: WRITING A METACOGNITIVE REFLECTION
Have you started collecting alternative assessment tools yet? Do you realize the importance of having a repertoire of alternative
assessment tools? The portfolio that you are developing in this course should be a continuing one. When I return the portfolio,
you should continue collecting more tools to include in your portfolio. You will need them in later on when you do your practice
teaching or when you become a teacher. Meanwhile, in this supplementary module you will be introduced to the process of
metacognitive reflection. Examples of tools for metacognitive reflection are presented in this Module
I. Objectives
1. Identify the processes involved in writing metacognitive reflection.
2. State the importance of engaging in metacognitive reflection
3. Write a metacognitive reflection as part of the portfolio development in the course.
II. Anticipatory Set
If you haven’t started writing a brief episode of your college experience, pleasant or otherwise, try these starters:
 Looking back… One choice….
 The change in me… To live differently, I would…
 Three things I remember…. If I were given another chance…
 My favorite part is… I lingering thought I have is ….
 One insight… The problem I am having ….

III. Lesson Proper

Learning is embedded in stories and vignettes students tell. As students relay the stories behind the artifacts (in this
course, the artifacts would be alternative assessment tools) they have selected for their portfolios, learning comes
alive for the learner and for the reader or listener.

Metacognitive reflection is a crucial step in the portfolio process. Rather than completing each artifact when
assigned and then forgetting about the skills and lessons learned while completing the assignment, reflection takes
it one step further – students are made to remember each artifact’s lesson and then place it in the context of the
portfolio’s purpose. Planning, monitoring, and evaluating each item in the portfolio and then reflecting on the portfolio
as a whole allows students to absorb the entire scope of what they have learned.

For EVALUATING, consider the project you are doing (PORTFOLIO DEVELOPMENT) and fill BOX A. The first
entry in the box is hypothetical, given as an example. For the ARTIFACT, write your project: collection of alternative
assessment tools.

IN – is when you started the project ARTIFACT - is your project

OUT – is when you finished it COMMENT – is how you feel about doing the project

MODULE No. 5

DESIGNING AUTHENTIC LEARNING TASKS AND ASSESSMENT

Introduction
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The real test of learning is measured by what the leaners can do with what they have learned. Performance is the key word.
Learning is most meaningful when the learners are performing what is “real” to them, something that they can relate to and
derive meaning from. Module 7 presents authentic learning and authentic assessment simultaneously. Assessment in the case
of authentic activities is assessment FOR and assessment AS learning. Learning and assessment are integrated processes.
The integration is shown in this module.

I. Objectives
Reading the content of this module and doing the exercises will enable you to:
1. Deepen your understanding of the relationship between authentic learning tasks or activities and authentic
assessment
2. Identify from a DepED learning resource unit (downloaded or obtained from a teacher) what authentic activities
may be given to the students and the corresponding assessment tool that may be used to assess learning.
3. Write a metacognitive reflection on the activities done in this module.

II. Anticipatory Set

In Module 6, one of your tasks was to write an essay on “Schooling in the COVID-19 Pandemic Times: My Personal
Experience.” Did you score your essay based on the rubric provided to you? Did you write a metacognitive
reflection of the essay writing activity? Was the experience that you wrote about real to you – that is, it was not a
make believe? Would you then say that the task that you did was an authentic task. In this Module, you will learn
more about authentic tasks and relate these to authentic assessment.

III. Lesson PropeR

A. Authentic tasks are real-life activities, performances, or challenges that mirror those faced by experts in the
particular field. They are complex and multidimensional and require higher levels of cognitive thinking such as problem
solving and critical thinking (Popham, James W. 2002).

Authentic tasks, sometimes referred to in literature as authentic learning tasks or simply authentic activities
are either replicas of or analogous to the kinds of problems faced by by adult citizens or professionals in the field and
are accompanied by the resources and opportunities for discussion, collaboration, revision, and justification typical of the
production of quality adult performances (Rudestam, Kjell Erik and Schoenholtz-Read, Judith, 2002). They are tasks
used in performance-based assessment that are based on real-world contexts and lead to real-world outcomes (Henry,
D.J. 2001).

Listed in BOX A are examples of authentic learning tasks or activities. The list is not exhaustive. You are
expected to add some more.

BOX A
Examples of authentic tasks that require students to plan, research and think
 Chatting with friends online on common topic of interest
 Communicating a message in a poster format, bulletin board, or display
 Conducting a survey
 Creating a model
 Creating a recipe
 Critiquing a performance
 Performing dances
 Demonstrating problem solving skills
 Interviewing people through phone or face to face
 Inventing something useful
 Making a computer prograM

B. Authentic Assessment. This involves assessment tasks that elicit demonstrations of knowledge and skills in ways
that resemble “real life” as closely as possible. An authentic assessment also engages students in the activity and
reflects best instructional activities. Thus, teaching to the authentic assessment is desirable (Bordens, Kenneth S. and
Abbott, Bruce B. 2008).
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The heart of authentic assessment is realistic performance-based testing – asking the students to use
knowledge in real-world ways, with genuine purposes, audience, and situational variables. Thus, the context of the
assessment, not just the task itself and whether it is performance-based or hands-on, is what makes the work authentic
(e.g. the “messiness’ of the problem, ability to seek feedback and revise, asses to appropriate resources). Authentic
assessments are meant to do more than “test:” They should teach the students (and teachers - what the
“doing” of a subject looks like and what kinds of performance challenges are actually considered most
important in a field of profession. The tasks are chosen because they are representative of essential questions or
challenges facing practitioners in the field.

An authentic test directly measures students on the valued performance. By contrast, multiple choice tests are
indirect measures of performance. In the field of measurement, authentic tests are called “direct” test.
Authentic assessment also includes providing ill-structured problem (also ill-defined problem), a term used to
describe a question, problem, or task that lacks a recipe or obvious formula to answer or solve it. Ill-structured tasks or
problems do not suggest or imply a specific strategy or approach guaranteed to yield success. Often the problem is
fuzzy and needs to be further clarified before a solution is offered. Such questions or problems thus, demand more than
knowledge; they demand good judgement and imagination. All essay questions, science problems, or design
challenges are ill-structured.

MODULE No. 6 (H)

FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIORAL ASSESSMENT (FBA) of BEHAVIORALLY CHALLENGED LEARNERS
I. Objectives: The readings and activities in this module will enable you to:
1. recall some observations or incidences in the classroom in the past (grade school and in college) that interfere with
classroom learning;
2. recall classroom management and instructional practices of some teachers in their attempt to understand students’
learning and social needs that hinder learning in the classrooms;
3. identify innovative, motivating, differentiated teaching practices and instructional accommodations or adaptations to help
children with learning difficulties.

Your classroom management plan should be consistent with and include the services available in your school’s
positive behavioral support system, if there is one existing. Schoolwide approach to supporting the learning and
positive behavior of all students involves the collaboration and commitment of educators, students, and family and
community members to:
 agree on unified expectations, rules and procedures;
 use wrap-around school- and community-based services and interventions;
 create a caring, warm, and safe learning environment and community support;
 understand and address student diversity;
 offer a meaningful and interactive curriculum and a range of individualized instructional strategies;
 teach social skills and self-control; and
 evaluate the impact of the system on students, educators, families and the community and revise it based on these data.
(Epstein et al., 2005; Kern & Manz, 2004; Leedy et al., 2004, in Salend, 2008).

Positive behavioral interventions and supports are proactive and culturally sensitive in nature and seek to prevent
students from engaging in problem behaviors by changing the environment in which the behaviors occur and
teaching prosocial behaviors (Duda & Utley, 2005). Positive behavioral interventions and supports also are
employed to help students acquire the behavioral and social skills that they will needs to succeed in inclusive
classrooms. A schoolwide and classroom-based positive behavioral strategies and supports may include a
functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and a behavioral intervention plan.
A functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is a person-centered. Multimethod, problem-solving process that involves
gathering information to:
 measure student behaviors;
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 determine why, where, and when a student uses these behaviors;

 identify the instructional, social, affective, cultural, environmental, and contextual variables that appear to lead to and
maintain the behaviors; and
 plan appropriate interventions that address the purposes the behaviors serve for students.

A. Guidelines for Conducting an FBA and an Example (Vignette of Matthew)

1. Create a Diverse Multidisciplinary Team

In conducting an FBA, you will collaborate with a diverse team that includes educators, and family and community
members. A team typically includes the student’s teachers(s), professionals who have expertise in the FBA process,
and administrators who can ensure that the recommendations outlined in the behavioral intervention plan are
implemented. The inclusion of family members also can provide the team with important information about the
student’s history and home-based events than may affect the students and the family.
2. Identify the Problematic Behaviors
First, the team identify the behavior that will be examined by the FBA by considering the following questions: (a) What
does the student do or fail to do that causes a problem? (b) How do the student’s cognitive, language, physical, and
sensory abilities affect the behavior? (c) How does the behavior affect the student’s learning, socialization, and self-
concept, as well as his/her classmates and adults?
3. Define the Behavior
Next, the behavior is defined in observable and measurable terms by listing its characteristics. For example, Matthew’s
off-task behavior can be defined in terms of his calling out and extraneous comments, his extensive comments related
to teacher questions, his inability to remain in his work area, his interactions with classmates, and the amount of work
completed.
4. Observe and Record the Behavior
After the behavior has been defined, the team selects an appropriate observational recording method and uses it during
times that are representative of typical classroom activities. Examples of different observational recording are:

a) Event Recording call-outs

Date Length of Session Number of Events

9/11 30 minutes 5
9/15 30 minutes 11
9/20 30 minutes 7

b) Event Recording of call-outs

Date Occurrence Time Total Duration

Number Start End
5/8 1 9:20 9:25 5 minutes
2 9:27 3 minutes
9:30
5/9 1 10:01 2 minutes
10:03
2 10.05 1 minute
10:06
3 10:10 4 minutes
10:14

c) Duration Recording of Out-of-seat Behavior

15 seconds 25 seconds 15 seconds 15 seconds

+ - - +
+ + - -
+ - - -
- + + +
+ + - +
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5. Obtain Additional Information About the Students and the Behavior

An important part of an FBA is obtaining information regarding the student and the behavior. Using multiple sources and
methods, the team gathers information to determine the student’s skills, strengths, challenges, interest, hobbies,
preferences, self-concept, attitudes, health, culture, language, and experiences. Data regarding successful and
ineffective interventions used in the past with the students also can be collected. Often, this information is obtained by
reviewing student records and by interviewing the student, teachers, family members, ancillary support personnel, and
peers or having these individuals complete a checklist or rating scale concerning the behavior.
6. Perform an Antecedents-Behavior-Consequences (A-B-C) Analysis
Antecedent and consequences are the events, stimuli, objects, actions, and activities that precede and trigger the
behavior, and follow and maintain the behaviors, respectively. Table 1 is an example of A-B-C analysis of Matthew’s
off-task behavior.
7. Analyze the Data
The A-B-C data are then analyzed and summarized to identify when, where, with whom, and under what conditions the
behavior is most likely and least likely to occur for questions that can guide one in analyzing the behavior’s antecedents
and consequences. The A-B-C analysis data are also analyzed to try to determine why the students uses the behavior,
also referred to as the perceived function of the behavior. Functions of the behavior often are related to the following
categories: (a) receiving attention from peers or adults, (b) gaining access to a desired object or activity, (c) avoiding an
undesired activity, and (d) addressing sensory and basic needs. BOX B contains some factors and questions to
consider in conducting an A-B-C analysis.
8. Develop Hypothesis Statements
Next, the prior information collected and the A-B-C analysis data are used to develop specific and global statements,
also referred to as summary statements, concerning the student and the behavior hypotheses about the student and the
behavior, which are verified. Specific hypotheses address the reasons why the behavior occurs and the conditions
related to the Global hypotheses address how factors in the student’s life in school, at home, and in the community
impact on the behavior. In the case of Matthew, a possible global hypothesis can address the possibility that his
seeking attention is related to his limited opportunities to interact with peers after school. After hypothesis statements
are developed, direct observations is used to validate their accuracy.
9. Consider Sociocultural Factors
When analyzing the A-B-C information to determine hypotheses, the team should consider the impact of cultural
perspectives and language background on the student’s behavior and communication. Behavioral differences in
students related to their learning histories and behaviors, family’s cultural perspectives, preference for working on
several tasks at once, listening and responding styles, peer interaction patterns, responses to authority, verbal and
nonverbal communication, turn-taking sequences, physical space, eye contact, and student-teacher interactions can be
attributed to their cultural backgrounds.
10. Develop a Behavioral Intervention Plan
Based on its information and hypotheses, the team collaboratively develops a behavioral intervention plan focusing on
how the learning environment will change to address the student’s behavior, characteristics, strengths and challenges,

MODULE No. 7
ANECDOTAL RECORDS (J)
Anecdotal Record. Another way of recording the behavior of individuals is the anecdotal record. It is just what its
name implies – a record of observed behaviors written down in the form of anecdotes. There Is no set format; rather,
observers are free to record any behavior they think is important and need not focus on the same behavior for all
subjects. To produce the most useful record, however, observers should try to be as specific and as factual as possible
and to avoid evaluative, interpretive, or overly generalized remarks. There are four types of anecdotes: the first
three are to be avoided and only the fourth type is desired (American Council of Education in Fraenkel, Wallen &
Hyun, 2013).
1. Anecdotes that evaluate or judge the behavior of the child as good or bad, desirable or undesirable, acceptable or
unacceptable … evaluative statements (to be avoided).
2. Anecdotes that account for or explain the child’s behavior, usually on the basis of a single fact or thesis… interpretive
statements (to be avoided).
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3. Anecdotes that describe certain behavior in general terms, as happening frequently, or as characterizing the child…
generalized statements (to be avoided).
4. Anecdotes that tell exactly what the child did or said, that describe concretely the situation in which the action or
comment occurred, and that tell exactly clearly what other persons also did or said … specific or concrete descriptive
statements (the type desired.)