Chapter 4 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells All cells

Cell and membrane structure and share certain basic features:

function
-They are all bounded by a selective barrier, called the
plasma membrane (or the cell membrane).
Cells—the basic structural and functional units of every
- Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called
organism—are of two distinct types: prokaryotic and
cytosol, in which subcellular components are suspended.
eukaryotic. Organisms of the domains Bacteria and
- All cells contain chromosomes, which carry genes in the
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells. Organisms of the
form of DNA. And all cells have ribosomes, tiny
domain Eukarya— protists, fungi, animals, and plants—all
complexes that make proteins according to instructions
consist of eukaryotic cells. (“Protist” is an informal term
from the genes. A major difference between prokaryotic
referring to a diverse group of mostly unicellular
and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. In a
eukaryotes.)
eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA is in an organelle called
the nucleus, which is bounded by a double membrane. In a
prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a region that is
not membrane-enclosed, called the nucleoid
 - The interior of either type of cell is called the cytoplasm;
in eukaryotic cells, this term refers only to the region between
the nucleus and the plasma membrane. Within the cytoplasm
of a eukaryotic cell, suspended in cytosol, are a variety of
organelles of specialized form and function. These
membrane-bounded structures are absent in almost all
prokaryotic cells, another distinction between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells. In spite of the absence of organelles, though,
the prokaryotic cytoplasm is not a formless soup. For
example, some prokaryotes contain regions surrounded by
proteins (not membranes), within which specific reactions
Eukaryotic means “true nucleus” (from the Greek eu, true, take place.
and karyon, kernel, referring to the nucleus), and prokaryotic - Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic
means “before nucleus” (from the Greek pro, before), cells . Size is a general feature of cell structure that relates to
reflecting the earlier evolution of prokaryotic cells function.
- At the boundary of every cell, the plasma membrane
functions as a selective barrier that allows passage of enough
oxygen, nutrients, and wastes to service the entire cell

The plasma membrane and the membranes of organelles consist

of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids with various
proteins attached to or embedded in it. The hydrophobic parts of
phospholipids and membrane proteins are found in the interior
of the membrane, while the hydrophilic parts are in contact with
aqueous solutions on either side. Carbohydrate side chains may
be attached to proteins or lipids
The Eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes

The nucleus: Information Central

- The nucleus contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell. An intricate protein structure called a pore complex lines
(Some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts.) It is each pore and plays an important role in the cell by
usually the most conspicuous organelle, averaging about 5 µm regulating the entry and exit of proteins and RNAs, as
in diameter. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, well as large complexes of macromolecules
separating its contents from the cytoplasm.

- The nuclear envelope is a double membrane. The two

membranes, each a lipid bilayer with associated proteins, are
separated by a space of 20–40 nm. The envelope is perforated
by pore structures that are about 100 nm in diameter. At the lip
of each pore, the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope are continuous.
- The nuclear side of the envelope is lined by the nuclear - A prominent structure within the nondividing nucleus is
lamina, a netlike array of protein filaments (in animal cells, the nucleolus (plural, nucleoli), Here a type of RNA called
-
called intermediate filaments) that maintains the shape of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized from genes in the
the nucleus by mechanically supporting the nuclear DNA. Also in the nucleolus, proteins imported from the
envelope. cytoplasm are assembled with rRNA into large and small
subunits of ribosomes. These subunits then exit the nucleus
- Within the nucleus, the DNA is organized into discrete through the nuclear pores to the cytoplasm, where a large
units called chromosomes, structures that carry the genetic and a small subunit can assemble into a ribosome.
information, the complex of DNA and proteins making up
chromosomes is called chromatin.
Ribosomes: Protein Factory

Ribosomes, which are complexes made of ribosomal - Ribosomes build proteins in two cytoplasmic regions: At any
RNAs and proteins, are the cellular components that carry given time, free ribosomes are suspended in the cytosol, while
out protein synthesis, Cells with high rates of protein bound ribosomes are attached to the outside of the
synthesis have particularly large numbers of ribosomes. endoplasmic reticulum or nuclear envelope. Bound and free
- Ribosomes composed of small and large subunits ribosomes are structurally identical, and ribosomes can play
either role at different times. Most of the proteins made on free
ribosomes function within the cytosol; examples are enzymes
that catalyze the first steps of sugar breakdown. Bound
ribosomes generally make proteins that are destined for
insertion into membranes, for packaging within certain
organelles such as lysosomes, or for export from the cell
(secretion).
Endomembrane system

- Many of the different membrane-bounded organelles of the - Cisternae (from the Latin cisterna, a reservoir for a
eukaryotic cell are part of the endomembrane system, which liquid). The ER membrane separates the internal
includes the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic reticulum, the compartment of the ER, called the ER lumen(cavity) or
Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, various kinds of vesicles and cisternal space, from the cytosol
vacuoles, and the plasma membrane. - The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear
envelope, the space between the two membranes of the
The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
envelope is continuous with the lumen of the ER
- The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is such an extensive
network of membranes that it accounts for more than half the
total membrane in many eukaryotic cells. (The word
endoplasmic means “within the cytoplasm,” and reticulum is
Latin for “little net.”)

- The ER consists of a network of membranous tubules and

sacs called cisternae (from the Latin cisterna, a reservoir for a
liquid)
- There are two distinct, though connected, regions of the ER - Other enzymes of the smooth ER help detoxify drugs
that differ in structure and function: smooth ER and rough ER. and poisons, especially in liver cells. Detoxification
Smooth ER is so named because its outer surface lacks usually involves adding hydroxyl groups to drug
ribosomes. Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the outer molecules, making them more water-soluble and easier
surface of the membrane and thus appears rough the electron to flush from the body
microscope.

- The smooth ER also stores calcium ions. In muscle

Functions of Smooth ER
cells, for example, the smooth ER membrane pumps
- Enzymes of the smooth ER are important in the synthesis of calcium ions from the cytosol into the ER lumen.
lipids, including oils, steroids, and new membrane
phospholipids. Among the steroids produced by the smooth ER
in animal cells are the sex hormones of vertebrates and the
various steroid hormones secreted by the adrenal glands
Functions of Rough ER

- Many cells secrete proteins that are produced by - The Golgi apparatus consists of a group of associated,

ribosomes attached to rough ER flattened membranous sacs—cisternae—looking like a

stack of pita bread. A cell may have many, even
- In addition to making secretory proteins, rough ER is a
hundreds, of these stacks. The membrane of each
membrane factory for the cell; it grows in place by adding
cisterna in a stack separates its internal space from the
membrane proteins and phospholipids to its own membrane
cytosol.

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center - A Golgi stack has a distinct structural directionality,
with the membranes of cisternae on opposite sides of the
- After leaving the ER, many transport vesicles travel to the
stack differing in thickness and molecular composition.
Golgi apparatus. We can think of the Golgi as a warehouse
The two sides of a Golgi stack are referred to as the cis
for receiving, sorting, shipping, and even some
face and the trans face; these act, respectively, as the
manufacturing. Here, products of the ER, such as proteins,
receiving and shipping departments of the Golgi
are modified and stored and then sent to other destinations.
apparatus.
- In addition to its finishing work, the Golgi apparatus also Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
manufactures some macromolecules. Many polysaccharides
- A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic
secreted by cells are Golgi products. For example, pectins
enzymes that many eukaryotic cells use to digest
and certain other noncellulose polysaccharides are made in
(hydrolyze) macromolecules. Lysosomal enzymes work
the Golgi of plant cells and then incorporated along with
best in the acidic environment found in lysosomes
cellulose into their cell walls
- Lysosomes carry out intracellular digestion in a variety
of circumstances. Amoebas and many other unicellular
protists eat by engulfing smaller organisms or food
particles, a process called phagocytosis. The food
vacuole formed in this way then fuses with a lysosome,
whose enzymes digest the food

- Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic enzymes to recycle

the cell’s own organic material, a process called
autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

- Vacuoles are large vesicles derived from the endoplasmic

reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Thus, vacuoles are an integral part
of a cell’s endomembrane system

- Vacuoles perform a variety of functions in different kinds of

cells. Food vacuoles ( they are circular portions of the plasma
membrane that capture or encircle food particles when they enter
the cell) . Many unicellular protists living in fresh water have
contractile vacuoles that pump excess water out of the cell,
thereby maintaining a suitable concentration of ions and
molecules inside the cell
- In plants and fungi, certain vacuoles carry out enzymatic - The central vacuole plays a major role in the growth of
hydrolysis, a function shared by lysosomes in animal cells. plant cells, which enlargeas the vacuole absorbs water,
In plants, small vacuoles can hold reserves of important enabling the cell to become larger with a minimal
organic compounds, such as the proteins stockpiled in the investment in new cytoplasm.
storage cells in seeds. Vacuoles may also help protect the Mitochondria and chloroplast change energy from
plant against herbivores by storing compounds that are one form to another
poisonous or unpalatable to animals. Some plant vacuoles
Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion
contain pigments, such as the red and blue pigments of petals
- Mitochondria are found in nearly all eukaryotic cells,
that help attract pollinating insects to flowers.
including those of plants, animals, fungi, and most
- Mature plant cells generally contain a large central protists
vacuole. The solution inside the central vacuole, called cell - Each of the two membranes enclosing the
sap, is the plant cell’s main repository of inorganic ions, mitochondrion is a phospholipid bilayer with a unique
including potassium and chloride. collection of embedded proteins. The outer membrane is
smooth, but the inner membrane is convoluted, with
infoldings called cristae
 Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy

- The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two - Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll,
internal compartments. The first is the intermembrane space, along with enzymes and other molecules that function in the
the narrow region between the inner and outer membranes. photosynthetic production of sugar. These lens-shaped
The second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, is organelles, about 3–6 µm in length, are found in leaves and
enclosed by the inner membrane other green organs of plants and in algae
- The matrix contains many different enzymes as well as the - The contents of a chloroplast are partitioned from the
mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. Enzymes in the matrix cytosol by an envelope consisting of two membranes
catalyze some of the steps of cellular respiration. Other separated by a very narrow intermembrane space. Inside the
proteins that function in respiration, including the enzyme that chloroplast is another membranous system in the form of
makes ATP, are built into the inner membrane. flattened, interconnected sacs called thylakoids

- In some regions, thylakoids are stacked like poker chips;

each stack is called a granum (plural, grana). The fluid
outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which contains the
chloroplast DNA and ribosomes as well as many enzymes
 Peroxisomes: Oxidation

- The membranes of the chloroplast divide the chloroplast space - The peroxisome is a specialized metabolic compartment
into three compartments: the intermembrane space, the stroma, bounded by a single membrane. Peroxisomes contain
and the thylakoid space. This compartmental organization enzymes that remove hydrogen atoms from various
enables the chloroplast to convert light energy to chemical substrates and transfer them to oxygen (O2), producing
energy during photosynthesis. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) as a by-product (from which
the organelle derives its name)
- These reactions have many different functions. Some
peroxisomes use oxygen to break fatty acids down into
smaller molecules that are transported to mitochondria
and used as fuel for cellular respiration.
- Peroxisomes in the liver detoxify alcohol and other
harmful compounds by transferring hydrogen from the
poisonous compounds to oxygen. The H2O2 formed by
peroxisomes is itself toxic, but the organelle also
contains an enzyme that converts H2O2 to water
 Cytoskeleton

- Specialized peroxisomes called glyoxysomes are - The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes
found in the fat-storing tissues of plant seeds. These structures and activities in the cell
organelles contain enzymes that initiate the conversion - Three main types of fibers that make up the cytoskeleton:
of fatty acids to sugar, which the emerging seedling uses Microtubules are the thickest of the three types;
as a source of energy and carbon until it can produce its microfilaments (also called actin filaments) are the thinnest;
own sugar by photosynthesis. and intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a
middle range
Extracellular components

Cell walls of plant

- The wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and - When the cell matures and stops growing , cells add a

prevents excessive uptake of water. Prokaryotes, some protists, secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane and

and fungi also have cell walls the primary cell wall

- Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in

other polysaccharides and protein

- A young plant cell first secretes a relatively thin and flexible

wall called the primary cell wall. Between primary walls of
adjacent cells is the middle lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky
polysaccharides called pectins. The middle lamella glues
adjacent cells together
The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

- The main ingredients of the ECM are glycoproteins and

other carbohydrate-containing molecules secreted by the cells.
The most abundant glycoprotein in the ECM of most animal
cells is collagen, which forms strong fibers outside the cells.
In fact, collagen accounts for about 40% of the total protein in
the human body. The collagen fibers are embedded in a
network woven out of proteoglycans secreted by cells
Cell Junctions

- Cells in an animal or plant are organized into tissues, organs, and

organ systems. Neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and
communicate via sites of direct physical contact.

- Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells, it might seem that the nonliving

cell walls of plants would isolate plant cells from one another. But in
fact, many plant cell walls are perforated with plasmodesmata
(singular, plasmodesma; from the Greek desma, bond), channels that
connect cells.

- In animals, there are three main types of cell junctions: tight

junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. (Gap junctions are most
like the plasmodesmata of plants, although gap junction pores are not
lined with membrane—rather, they consist of proteins extending from
each cell’s membrane that form a connecting pore.)
 Membrane Structure and Function

Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and proteins

- Lipids and proteins are the staple ingredients of membranes. The majority are transmembrane proteins, which span the
The most abundant lipids in most membranes are membrane; other integral proteins extend only partway
phospholipids. A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule into the hydrophobic interior

- A phospholipid bilayer can exist as a stable boundary

between two aqueous compartments because the molecular
arrangement shelters the hydrophobic tails of the
phospholipids from water while exposing the hydrophilic
heads to water

- There are two major populations of membrane proteins:

integral proteins and peripheral proteins. Integral proteins
penetrate the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer.
 Transport proteins

- Specific ions and a variety of polar molecules can’t

move through cell membranes on their own.
However, these hydrophilic substances can avoid

The Permeability of Lipid Bilayer contact with the lipid bilayer by passing through

- Nonpolar molecules, such as hydrocarbons, CO2, and O2, are transport proteins that span the membrane

hydrophobic, as are lipids. They can all therefore dissolve in - Some transport proteins, called channel proteins,
the lipid bilayer of the membrane and cross it easily, without function by having a hydrophilic channel that certain
the aid of membrane proteins molecules or ions use as a tunnel through the
- Polar molecules such as glucose and other sugars pass only membrane
slowly through a lipid bilayer, and even water, a very small
- The passage of water molecules through the
polar molecule, does not cross rapidly relative to nonpolar
membrane in certain cells is greatly facilitated by
molecules. A charged atom or molecule and its surrounding
channel proteins known as aquaporins
shell of water are even less likely to penetrate the hydrophobic
interior of the membrane
Passive Transport
- When a substance is more concentrated on one side of a - Remember, though, that membranes are selectively
membrane than on the other, there is a tendency for it to permeable and therefore have different effects on the rates
diffuse across, down its concentration gradient (assuming of diffusion of various molecules. Water can diffuse very
that the membrane is permeable to that substance). rapidly across the membranes of cells with aquaporins,
compared with diffusion in the absence of aquaporins.
- One important example is the uptake of oxygen by a cell
The movement of water across the plasma membrane has
performing cellular respiration. Dissolved oxygen diffuses
important consequences for cells
into the cell across the plasma membrane. As long as cellular
respiration consumes the O2 as it enters, diffusion into the cell
will continue because the concentration gradient favors
movement in that direction.

- The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is

called passive transport because it requires no energy. The
concentration gradient itself represents potential energy and
drives diffusion
Effect of Osmosis on Water Balance

- Water diffuses across the membrane from the region of - If a cell without a cell wall, such as an animal cell, is
higher free water concentration (lower solute concentration) immersed in an environment that is isotonic to the cell (iso
to that of lower free water concentration (higher solute means “same”), there will be no net movement of water
concentration) until the solute concentrations on both sides across the plasma membrane. Water diffuses across the
of the membrane are more nearly equal. The diffusion of membrane, but at the same rate in both directions. In an
free water across a selectively permeable membrane, isotonic environment, the volume of an animal cell is
whether artificial or cellular, is called osmosis stable

- If an animal cell transferred to a solution that is hypertonic

Water Balance of Cells Without Walls
to the cell (hyper means “more,” in this case referring to
- Tonicity, the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a nonpenetrating solutes). The cell will lose water, shrivel, and
cell to gain or lose water. The tonicity of a solution depends probably die.
in part on its concentration of solutes that cannot cross the
membrane (nonpenetrating solutes) relative to that inside the
cell
- If a cell placed in a solution that is
hypotonic to the cell (hypo means “less”),
water will enter the cell faster than it leaves,
and the cell will swell and lyse (burst) like an
overfilled water balloon.
Facilitated Diffusion: Passive Transport Aided by proteins

- Many polar molecules and ions blocked by the lipid

bilayer of the membrane diffuse passively with the help of
transport proteins that span the membrane. This
phenomenon is called facilitated diffusion.

- Two types of transport proteins are channel proteins and

carrier proteins.

- Channel proteins simply provide corridors that allow

specific molecules or ions to cross the membrane, Channel
proteins that transport ions are called ion channels

- Like ion channels, carrier proteins involved in facilitated

diffusion result in the net movement of a substance down
its concentration gradient. No energy input is thus required:
This is passive transport.
Active transport uses energy to move solutes against their gradient

- Some other transport proteins, however, can use energy

to move solutes against their concentration gradients,
across the plasma membrane from the side where they
are less concentrated (whether inside or outside) to the
side where they are more concentrated.

- To pump a solute across a membrane against its

gradient requires work; the cell must expend energy.
Therefore, this type of membrane traffic is called active
transport. ATP hydrolysis supplies the energy for most
active transport.

- For example, sodium-potassium pump, which

exchanges Na+ for K+ across the plasma membrane of
animal cells
Cotransport

In a mechanism called cotransport, a transport protein (a

cotransporter) can couple the “downhill” diffusion of the solute
to the “uphill” transport of a second substance against its own
concentration gradient. For instance, a plant cell uses the
gradient of H+ generated by its ATP-powered proton pumps to
drive the active transport of amino acids, sugars, and several
other nutrients into the cell. In the example shown in the
following Figure, a cotransporter couples the return of H+ to
the transport of sucrose into the cell. This protein can
translocate sucrose into the cell against its concentration
gradient, but only if the sucrose molecule travels in the
company of an H+. The H+ uses the transport protein as an
avenue to diffuse down its own electrochemical gradient,
which is maintained by the proton pump.
Bulk transport across the plasma membrane occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis

- Large molecules, such as proteins and polysaccharides, The contents of the vesicle spill out of the cell, and the
vesicle membrane becomes part of the plasma membrane.
generally don’t cross the membrane by diffusion or transport
proteins. Instead, they usually enter and leave the cell in bulk,
packaged in vesicles.

- The cell secretes certain molecules by the fusion of vesicles

with the plasma membrane; this process is called exocytosis

- A transport vesicle that has budded from the Golgi apparatus

moves along a microtubule of the cytoskeleton to the plasma
membrane. When the vesicle membrane and plasma
membrane come into contact, specific proteins in both
membranes rearrange the lipid molecules of the two bilayers
so that the two membranes fuse.
- In endocytosis, the cell takes in molecules and particulate -There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis
matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma membrane. (“cellular eating”), pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”),
Although the proteins involved in the processes are different, and receptor-mediated endocytosis.
the events of endocytosis look like the reverse of exocytosis.

- First, a small area of the plasma membrane sinks inward to

form a pocket. Then, as the pocket deepens, it pinches in,
forming a vesicle containing material that had been outside the
cell