CHAPTER ONE

Basic Concept of GIS

Geographic Information System

Geographic Information System abbreviated as GIS, is an emerging technology in storing,

managing, analysing and modelling geographic data. The field of geographic information
systems (GIS) is concerned with the description, explanation, and prediction of patterns and
processes at geographic scales. GIS is a science, a technology, discipline and an applied
problem solving methodology.

In general, a GIS provides facilities for data capture, data management, data manipulation
and analysis and presentation of results in both graphic and report form, with a particular
emphasis upon preserving and utilizing inherent characteristics of spatial data. The ability to
incorporate spatial data, manage it, analyze it and answer spatial questions is the distinctive
characteristic of geographic information system. A geographic information system commonly
referred to as a GIS is an integrated set of hardware and software tools used for the
manipulation and management of digital spatial (geographic) and related data.

1.1 Definitions and concepts of GIS.

Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analysing
things that exist and events that happen on Earth. GIS technology integrates common
database operations such as query and statistical analysis with the unique visualization and
geographic analysis benefits offered by maps. These abilities distinguish GIS from other
information systems and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises
for explaining events, predicting outcomes, and planning strategies.

GIS is a powerful tool for collecting, storing, analysing, querying and displaying spatial data
from the real world.

An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data, and personnel

designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of
geographically referenced data in order to support decision making for planning and

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management of land use, natural resources, environment, transportation, urban facilities, GIS
is the combination of three words: Geographical, Information and Systems.

This implies Geographical the ‘spatial key’ or location of features is central to data handling,
analysis and reporting, which sets GIS apart from other data base management systems. This
is the part of GIS that explains "spatially" where things are such as the location of nations,
states, counties, cities, schools, roads, rivers, lakes, and the list can go on and on. Spatially
means where on the earth's surface an object or feature is located. This can be as simple as
the latitude and longitude of a feature. The geographic feature or object can be anything of
interest.

Information: - without data and information GIS can have no role to play and good quality
data are critical if the results of analysis are to be reliable.

GIS the "data" or "attribute" information about specific features that we are interested in such
as the name of the feature, what the feature is, the location of the feature, and any other
information that is important. An example could be the name of a city, where it is located,
how big it is in square feet (area), its population, its population in the past, and any other
information that is important.

Geographical Information is different from other kinds of information and therefore requires
special methods to be analyzed. Here are some of the characteristics that make geographical
information system special is :-

 Multidimensional
 Different Representations and how this is done can strongly influence the ease of
analysis and the end results
 Requires projection to flat surface
 Requires unique analysis methods
 Analyses require data integration
 Data updates are expensive and time consuming

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Systems at a basic level they are computer-based systems, but it is important to remember
that GIS are rarely personal technology, so an understanding of how organizations manage
data and use information is critical to understanding and achieving effective use of GIS.

The system in GIS is the software that is written to help people analyze the data, look at the
data and combine it in various ways to show relationships or to create geographic models.
GIS can be made up of a variety of software and hardware tools, as long as they are
integrated to provide a functional geographic data processing tool.

The conception of GIS can be understood from several viewpoints. In terms of technology
the application GIS is a tool, a method or a technology to solve complex problems on spatial
analysis. Scientifically, GIS is an independent subject system developed on the basis of
geography, cartography and the computer technology. Functionally, GIS can be utilized for
spatial data acquisition, saving, expressing, processing, analysing and outputting and
possesses its own structure to be a complete application system.

Precisely, GIS is an organized collection of computer hardware, computer software,

geographical data and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate,
analyse and display all forms of geographically referenced data.

Data Integration

Data integration is the linking of information in different forms through a GIS. GIS is capable
to Integrate Spatial and Non-Spatial Data within a single system. Population records within
certain areas to determine the spatial distribution of population over space

Why GIS?

New technology for making maps/automatic map making, Geospatial data are better
maintained in a standard format. Revision and updating are easier. More value added product,
Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged freely over internet; Time and money are saved,
Better decision can be made, Better problem solving. To create maps that is difficult to make
by hand E.g., 3D or stereoscopic maps. Spatial Analysis – Neighborhood searches, Overlays,
Proximity Analysis, 3D-Analysis

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 • What is GIS able to do?

– Illustrate facts quickly and graphically

– Visualise comparisons between different options (highlight variations)

– Support arguments (decisions)

– Support interdisciplinary work

• What is GIS not able to do?

– Define the problems/tasks for the user

– Ensure suitability of the chosen data and process model

– Guarantee that the results make sense

– Prevent the user from choosing a theoretically correct but too

expensive/complicated option

1.2 HISTORY OF GIS

GIS is a relatively new technology and new field of study. Since its
inception in the early 1960s,
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) has been growing by leaps and bounds (through up-
and down). Originally developed by geographers, GIS has become a powerful tool useful to
all kinds of geospatial data. Traditionally, we have long used maps as a method of storing and
disseminating spatial data as well as exploring the earth and locating natural and cultural
resources. The modern geographic information system is however, a computer based
information system that digitally represents and analyzes the geographic features and events
on the earth’s surface and the non-spatial attributes linked to the geography under study.
Generally, the history of GIS can be divided in to three eras as discussed below.
1. Era of Innovation (1957- 1980): It is the era where GIS is introduced to the world. It was
created by Harvard researchers in the Harvard Laboratory for computer graphics and spatial
analysis. The most important events in the era of innovation were the foundation of ESRI
(Environmental System and Research Institute) and the launch of landsat I in 1972.

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2. Era of Commercialization (1981-1999): It is the era where GIS is used to make a
business. Hence, a number of Government and private organizations were established to
make GIS a worldwide profit making industry. The main events of this era were the launch of
ArCInfo, introduction of GPS operation (It is used for navigation, surveying and mapping),
and Internet GIS products.
3. Era of Exploitation (1999 - present): It is the era where we are now. It is distinct by a
high number of GIS users. The prominent activities of this era are the availability of more
than one million users, Launch of IKONOS and QUICKBIRD satellites, and the introduction
of Google earth and Mobile mapping.

1.3 Components of GIS

GIS is a technology that integrates powerful database capabilities with the unique visual
perspective of map. It involves information about the real world that is represented by point,
line, areas and image; at any scale ranging from local to global. GIS operates on two data
elements-spatial and non-spatial (attribute) data. Generally speaking GIS has Six
components. They are hardware, software, data, methods and people and Network

GIS enables the user to input, manage, manipulate, analyze, and display geographically
referenced data using a computerized system. To perform various operations with GIS the
integrations of the following component is necessary.

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1. Hardware :- Hardware refers to the computer components on which a GIS operates. The
central processing unit (CPU) is the core part of computer hardware that performs all the data
processing and analysis tasks. Today, GIS software runs on a wide range of hardware types,
from centralized computer servers to desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked
configurations. Hardware capabilities affect processing speed, ease of use and the types of
output available.

✓ Generally, the hardware components for GIS can be categorized into four major types as
follows.

1) Input devices: which includes digitizer, scanner, keyboard

2) Storage devices: that includes hard disc, floppy disc, CD ROM

3) Processing device: includes mainly the central processing unit (CPU)

4)Output devices: includes those devices like printer, plotter and monitor

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Main Components of hardware

i. Scanner:- it is input device that converts a picture in analogue format into a digital image
for further processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP,
JPG.

ii. Digitizer :- it is input device used for vectorisation (it is a process of converting raster into
vector format) of a given map objects. Features either on paper map or digital map selectively
can be traced using digitized.

iii. Printers and plotters:- Are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware set up.

iv. Storage devices - Storage devices are hardware designed to store information. There are
two types of storage devices used in computers; a 'primary storage' device and a 'secondary
storage' device. Primary storage device is location that holds memory for short periods of
times. For example computer RAM. On the other hand, storage medium that holds
information until it is deleted or overwritten is an example of secondary storage devices.
Examples include floppy disk drive or a hard disk drive.

2. Software components

GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to store, analyze, and display
geographic information. The GIS software makes it possible to synthesize large
amounts of different data, combining different layers of information to manage and
retrieve the data in a more useful manner

Typical applications for GIS software include the showing the location of place, the
management of power and gas lines, the creation of maps, the analysis of crimes for crime
prevention, route selection for transport, the management of forests, parks and infrastructure,
such as roads and water ways, as well as applications in risk analysis of natural hazards, and
emergency planning and response. For this multitude of applications different types of GIS

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functions are required and different categories of GIS software exist, which provide a
particular set of functions needed to fulfil certain data management tasks. We will first
explain important GIS software concepts, then list the typical tasks accomplished with GIS
software, describe different GIS software categories, and finally provide information on
software producers and projects.

Key software components include the following.

• Database management system (DBMS)

• Tools for the input and manipulation of geographic information

• Tools that support geographic query, analysis, and visualization and

• Graphical user interface (GUI) for easy access to tools

GIS application/ professional software

Based upon an operating system, augmented by additional programming tools and standards,
various vendors ESRI have developed GIS software packages. GIS software provides the
tools to manage, analyze, and effectively display and disseminate spatial data and spatial
information. Main function of GIS software are analytical functions that provide means for
deriving new geo-information from existing spatial and attribute data. Some of the major
international GIS Software are: Erdas, Idrisi , MapInfo, QGIS, ArcGIS

3. Data:- Perhaps the most important component of a GIS is the data. GIS can integrate
spatial data with other existing data resources, often stored in a corporate DBMS. The
integration of spatial data (often proprietary to the GIS software) and tabular data stored in a
DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS.

Like all useful data, geographic data is expected to possess desirable properties of accuracy,
timeliness, comprehensiveness, acceptable cost etc. Other general issues relating to
geographic data include spatial extent (the area covered), scale (the detail in the system), the
large volume (both attribute data and graphic data can make large storage demands), diversity
(data of interest plus background data), collection cost (despite technological advances, field

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collection of data can still be very labor intensive). Scale is important not only for graphic
representation in map form but also as it impacts on other issues such as map coverage
extent, data volume and data collection.

Major sources of geographic information is maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed

imagery and digital datasets available from various vendors. Today, in most developed
countries there is a declining emphasis on production of printed maps by mapping agencies as
geographic information collection is shifting to either remote sensing or to the use of GPS for
field data collection. Increasingly there is integration of GPS and GIS for field data
collection.

4. Methods

Successful GIS operates according to a well-designed implementation plan and business

rules, which are the models and operating practices unique to each organization.

 Procedures include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system, stored,
managed, transformed, analyzed, and finally presented in a final output.
 The procedures are the steps taken to answer the question need to be resolved. The
ability of a GIS to perform spatial analysis and answer these questions is what
differentiates this type of system from any other information systems.

As in all organizations dealing with sophisticated technology, new tools can only be used
effectively if they are properly integrated into the entire business strategy and operation. To
do this properly requires not only the necessary investments in hardware and software, but
also in the retraining and/or hiring of personnel to utilize the new technology in the proper
organizational context.

5. People: People refer users and can be considered as the component of GIS who actually
makes the GIS work. Effective use of GIS requires an organization to support various GIS
activities. People in GIS usually include a plethora of positions including GIS managers,
database administrators, application specialists, systems analysts, and programmers. They are
responsible for maintenance of the geographic database and provide technical support. People

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also need to be educated to make decisions on what type of system to use. People associated
with a GIS can be categorized into: viewers, general users, and GIS specialists.
No Elements of GIS Details
1. Hardware Types of Computers

 Modest personal computers

 High performance workstations
 Minicomputers

Input device

 Scanners
 Digitizers
 Keyboard

Output device

 Plotter
 printer
2. Software’s Input modules

Analysis modules, output visualization

3. Data Attribute and spatial data

Remote sensing data, Global database

4. Method Analysis, modelling and others
5. People Trained professionals responsible for data entry,
analysis…

GIS Subsystems

GIS is a computer based system that provides the following four subsystems to handle
referenced data.

A. Data Input Subsystem:- The important input data for any GIS is digitized maps, images,
spatial data and tabular data

It allows the user to collect, and transform spatial and thematic data into digital form. The
data inputs are usually derived from a combination of hard copy maps, aerial photographs,
remotely sensed images, reports, survey documents.

B. Data management (Data Storage, Editing and Retrieval Subsystem)

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The second necessary component for a GIS is the data storage and retrieval subsystem. The
Data Storage and retrieval subsystem organizes the data, spatial and attribute in a form
which permits it to be quickly retrieved by the user for analysis and permits rapid and
accurate updates to be made to the database. This component usually involves use of a
database management system (DBMS) for maintaining attribute data. Spatial data is usually
encoded and maintained in a proprietary file format.

 Organizing Data for Analysis: Most GIS software organizes spatial data in a
thematic approach that categorizes data in vertical layers.
 Editing and Updating of Data: Perhaps the primary function in the data storage and
retrieval subsystem involves the editing and updating of data.
 Data Retrieval and Querying The ability to retrieve data is based on the unique
structure of the DBMS and command interfaces are commonly provided with the
software
C. Data Manipulation and Analysis Subsystem

The Data Manipulation and Analysis subsystem allows the user to define and execute
spatial and attributes procedures to generate derived information. This subsystem is
commonly thought of as the heart of a GIS and usually distinguishes it from other database
information systems and computer-aided drafting (CAD) systems.

The maintenance and transformation of spatial data concerns the ability to input, manipulate,
and transform data once it has been created.

Data manipulation functions in GIS includes:-

 Retrieval, Reclassification and Generalization

 Topological overlay techniques
 Neighbourhood operations
D. Data Output and Display Subsystem
The Data Output subsystem allows the user to generate graphic displays, normally maps,
and tabular reports representing derived information products. This subsystem conveys the

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results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other
graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results
of analyses or simulations of potential events.
1.4. Capabilities of GIS
GIS has been described in two ways:
 Through formal definitions and
 Through factional capacity to carry out spatial operations and linking data sets together.
However, there is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions (capabilities)
the technology can (or should be able) to answer. These include: locations, conditions, trends,
patterns, modelling, non-spatial questions, and spatial questions. There are five types of
questions that a GIS can answer:

i. Query for location: what is it………?

The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. Mapped data
primarily indicates where objects are located, but cannot explain why. A location can be
described in many ways, for example place name, postcode, or geographic reference such as
longitude/latitude or x/y coordinates. For example, an aerial photo may show that corn is
growing vigorously in certain sections of a field, but cannot explain why it does not grow
well in other areas.

ii Query for Condition: where is it…………?

The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer.
Frequently a GIS user wants to discover whether the mapped data will meet certain
conditions. That means instead of identifying what exists at a given location one may wish to
find location where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g forested section of at least 2000
square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and with soils suitable for supporting
buildings).

iii. Trend analysis: what has changed since…………..?

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The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in
land use or forest coverage analysis over time. This can help to address temporal changes of
earth’s phenomena.

iv. Pattern analysis: what spatial patterns exist…………..?

This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether
landslides are mostly occurring near streams. It might be just as important to know how many
anomalies are those do not fit the pattern and where they are located.

v. Modelling: what if……………..?

"What if…" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, what if a toxic
substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type of question requires
both geographic and other information (as well as specific models). GIS permits spatial
operation. In addition to all these capabilities, GIS can also handle related to non- spatial
issues. For instance, "What's the average number of people working with GIS in each
location?" is non-spatial question - the answer to which does not require the stored value of
latitude and longitude; nor does it describe where the places are in relation with each other.

1.5 Applications of GIS

Our day of life with GIS illustrates the unprecedented frequency with which, directly or
indirectly, we interact with digital machines. Today, both individuals and organizations are
using GIS for the followings. About 80% of local government activities estimated to be
geographically based which includes , Zoning, public works (streets, water supply, sewers),
garbage collection, land ownership and valuation, public safety (fire and police). A
significant portion of state government has a geographical component natural resource
management, highways and transportation. Generally, the application of geospatial sciences
has spread very fast and wide over the past few decades. These include topographic base
mapping, socio-economic and environmental modelling, and education. Applications
generally set out to full fill the five Ms of GIS: Mapping, Measurement, Monitoring,
Modelling, and Management. General and specialized GIS systems have been designed for a
variety of purposes:

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GIS in Mapping: Mapping is a central function of Geographic Information System, which
provides a visual interpretation of data. GIS store data in database and then represent it
visually in a mapped format. People from different professions use map to communicate. It is
not necessary to be a skilled cartographer to create maps. Google map, Bing map, Yahoo map
are the best example for web based GIS mapping solution.

Urban Planning: GIS technology is used to analyze the urban growth and its direction of
expansion, and to find suitable sites for further urban development. In order to identify the
sites suitable for the urban growth, certain factors have to consider which is: land should have
proper accessibility, land should be more or less flat, land should be vacant or having low
usage value presently and it should have good supply of water.

Transportation Planning: GIS can be used in managing transportation and logistical

problems. If transport department is planning for a new railway or a road route then this can
be performed by adding environmental and topographical data into the GIS platform. This
will easily output the best route for the transportation based on the criteria like flattest route,
least damage to habitats and least disturbance from local people. GIS can also help in
monitoring rail systems and road conditions.

Natural Resources Management: By the help of GIS technology the agricultural, water and
forest resources can be well maintain and manage. Foresters can easily monitor forest
condition. Agricultural land includes managing crop yield, monitoring crop rotation, and
more. Water is one of the most essential constituents of the environment. GIS is used to
analyze geographic distribution of water resources. They are interrelated, i.e. forest cover
reduces the storm water runoff and tree canopy stores approximately 215,000 tons carbon.

GIS for Business: GIS is also used for managing business information based on its location.
GIS can keep a track of where the customers are located, site business, target marketing
campaigns, and optimize sales territories and model retail spending patterns. Such an added
advantage is provided by the GIS to enhance in making companies more competitive and
successful.

GIS for Land Administration: In a number of countries, the separate functions of land
administration are being drawn together through the creation of digital cadastral databases,

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with these database they can reuse land for suitable needs, digital taxation and even utilities
are also easily handle using these database.

Accident Analysis and Hot Spot Analysis: GIS can be used as a key tool to minimize
accident hazard on roads, the existing road network has to be optimized and also the road
safety measures have to be improved. This can be achieved by proper traffic management. By
identifying the accident locations, remedial measures can be planned by the district
administrations to minimize the accidents in different parts of the world. Rerouting design is
also very convenient using GIS.

What is Modeling: - is the process of producing an abstraction of the ‘real world’ so that
some part of it can be more easily handled.

• Modelling require that Geographer make analytical choices about what to concentrate
on what can be simplified or ignored. There are three types of model

• Physical model refer to physical systems whose behavior are some what correlate to
the systems of interest. Example Globe.

• Conceptual model is an abstract representation designed to articulate the processes

operating in a system. Its narrative form that used word to describe the systems of
interest

• Mathematical model used formal equation to represent the relationships among

system components, their various state and rates of change to them.

• It may ranges from simple equations to more complex software code applying many
interlinked equations to calculate spatially explicit result dynamically over time.

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