🧱 Chapter 5 — Strength of Concrete
📌 Introduction
Concrete strength = most valuable property, though sometimes durability or permeability matter
more.
Strength reflects the quality of hydrated cement paste.
Strength is defined as the ultimate load causing failure (MPa = N/mm²).
💥 Failure Modes of Concrete
1. 🔴 Tension Failure
Needs less energy for crack initiation.
Cracks form in matrix and ITZ (Interfacial Transition Zone).
Brittle failure — stress-strain curve is almost a straight line.
2. 🔵 Compression Failure
Needs more energy.
At < 50% stress: no matrix cracks, stable ITZ — straight stress-strain curve.
At > 50% stress: matrix cracks increase, curve deviates from straight line.
🧪 Types of Concrete Strength
1. 🧱 Compressive Strength
Standard procedure: Full compaction + Wet curing.
It's widely used in design & quality control:
o Easy to measure.
o Other properties correlate with it.
Standard test: 28-day uniaxial compression.
Types of failure:
o A) Tension (splitting)
o B) Shear (sliding)
o C) Combined
2. 🔗 Tensile Strength
Concrete is weak in direct tension.
Important to estimate when cracks start.
Prevents reinforcement corrosion.
a) 🎯 Direct Tension Test
Pure tension → very hard to achieve.
Lazy-tong grips used.
b) 🌗 Splitting Test (ASTM C496)
Cylinder placed horizontally between plates.
Indirect tension → causes vertical splitting.
Plywood strips (3mm thick, 25mm wide) reduce stress concentration.
Formula:
σt=2PπDL\sigma_t = \frac{2P}{\pi D L}
Tensile strength ≈ 10–15% higher than direct tension.
≈ 50–75% of flexural strength.
3. 📐 Flexural Strength (Modulus of Rupture)
Important for pavement design.
Unreinforced concrete beam tested.
Formula:
σ=PLbd2\sigma = \frac{PL}{bd^2}
1-point load (center) gives higher but variable values.
2-point load (3rd-point) more consistent.
Indicates concrete’s tensile resistance.
🎯 Factors Affecting Concrete Strength
1️⃣ Testing Parameters
1. Shape & Size of Specimens 🧱
10 cm cube > 15 cm cube (≈10% higher).
Cylinder (15×30 cm) ≈ 0.8 × 15 cm cube.
2. Load Application Rate 📈
Slow loading → creep → more strain → lower strength.
3. Moisture Condition 💧
Dry cube > Wet cube.
Dry condition weakens cohesion between ingredients.
4. Height/Diameter Ratio 📊
Standard: H/D = 2.
If H > 1.7×D → stress distribution affected.
If H < 1.5×D → higher apparent strength.
2️⃣ Curing Conditions 🕒💦🌡️
1. Time 🕐
Longer moist curing → higher strength.
2. Humidity 💧
Moist curing for 180 days = 3× stronger than air curing.
3. Temperature 🌡️
Lower curing temp → slower strength gain.
High temp early → rapid setting, but may reduce long-term strength.
3️⃣ Mix Composition & Material Properties
1. Water/Cement Ratio (w/c) 💧⚖️
Lower w/c ratio → less porosity → higher strength.
2. Effective Water 💦
Effective = water outside aggregates.
Important at setting time.
3. Gel/Space Ratio 🧪
Depends on hydration, cement properties, temperature, air content, cracks.
Better hydration → more gel → higher strength.
4. Aggregate/Cement Ratio ⚖️
Affects packing, paste coverage, bond quality.
5. Coarse Aggregate Properties 🪨
Strong, clean, angular → better strength.
6. Mixing Water Quality 🚱
Impurities → interfere with hydration, stain surface, cause corrosion.
Use potable water (fit for drinking).
4️⃣ Age of Concrete ⏳
Strength is typically measured at 28 days.
If early results are used, must calibrate to 28-day value.
5️⃣ Temperature During Casting 🌡️
High temperature → faster setting, early strength gain.
But may lead to lower long-term strength due to poor hydration structure.
🔄 Curing of Concrete
🎯 Purpose
Enhance hydration.
Prevent moisture loss.
Ensure product of hydration fills the original water-filled space.
6️⃣ Curing Methods
6.1 Wet Curing 💦
Effective if applied thoroughly & continuously.
Methods:
o Spraying, flooding, ponding
o Wet sand/earth/straw/sawdust
o Burlap, cotton mats
o Soaking hoses for vertical/inclined surfaces
Use clean water (no salt, iron, or organic matter).
Max temp difference between water and concrete = 11°C (per ACI).
6.2 Membrane Curing 🧴🧼
Prevents water loss from surface (no added water).
Techniques:
o Polyethylene sheeting (black for cold, white for hot).
o Spray-applied curing compounds.
Watch out for discoloration due to uneven condensation.
6.3 Duration of Curing ⏳
Depends on:
o Drying conditions 🌬️
o Durability requirements 🏗️
Refer to BS EN 206-1:2007 for minimum days.
🧲 Bond Between Concrete & Reinforcement
Crucial for structural behavior.
Arises from:
1. Friction 🧱
2. Chemical adhesion ⚗️
3. Mechanical interlock with deformed bars 🪛
Affected by concrete quality + reinforcement geometry + cover thickness.
1. Which of the following correctly describes tensile failure in concrete?
A. Requires high energy to initiate cracks
B. Exhibits ductile stress-strain behavior
C. Crack propagation is slow and localized
D. Stress-strain curve is nearly linear until failure
2. In uniaxial compression, cracks begin to form in the matrix when stress exceeds approximately:
A. 25% of the failure stress
B. 50% of the failure stress
C. 75% of the failure stress
D. 100% of the failure stress
3. Which failure mode occurs in the splitting tensile test of concrete?
A. Shear failure
B. Indirect tension failure
C. Bending failure
D. Direct tension failure
4. The modulus of rupture represents:
A. Average compressive stress
B. Elastic modulus
C. Theoretical max tensile stress in a flexural test
D. Shear capacity of concrete
5. The splitting tensile strength is typically how much of the flexural strength?
A. 10–15%
B. 25–40%
C. 50–75%
D. 80–90%
6. A cube of 10 cm size shows higher strength than a 15 cm cube due to:
A. Higher compaction
B. Lower cement content
C. Fewer internal defects
D. Higher water content
7. What is the standard height-to-diameter ratio for cylindrical specimens in compression testing?
A. 1
B. 1.5
C. 2
D. 2.5
8. What is the effect of slow rate of load application on test results?
A. Increases test strength
B. Has no effect
C. Reduces strength due to creep
D. Reduces stiffness
9. Curing concrete at high temperatures increases early strength, but may reduce long-term strength because:
A. Hydration stops early
B. Thermal expansion cracks the concrete
C. Poorer microstructure forms
D. Air bubbles are trapped inside
10. According to ACI, the maximum temperature difference between curing water and fresh concrete should
not exceed:
A. 6°C
B. 9°C
C. 11°C
D. 14°C
11. In membrane curing, polyethylene sheets are preferred white-colored in hot weather because:
A. They are cheaper
B. They prevent mold
C. They reflect solar radiation
D. They absorb moisture better
12. The bond strength between concrete and reinforcement is enhanced by all except:
A. Friction
B. Mechanical interlock
C. Smooth round bars
D. Chemical adhesion
13. The ratio of splitting tensile strength to direct tensile strength is generally:
A. 0.5 – 0.75
B. 1.0 – 1.2
C. 1.1 – 1.15
D. 1.5 – 2.0
14. The effective water in a concrete mix refers to:
A. Water lost due to evaporation
B. Water that forms the gel
C. Water outside aggregate particles at setting
D. Water used for curing
15. In flexural testing, the center-point loading results in:
A. Lower rupture modulus
B. Higher and more variable results
C. Lower and more stable results
D. Identical values to third-point loading
🔐 Answers:
1. D
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. C
6. C
7. C
8. C
9. C
10. C
11. C
12. C
13. C
14. C
15. B