Refrigeration system components: Compressor
Introduction to refrigerant compressors:
A compressor is the most important and often the costliest (30 to 40 % plant
cost) component of any vapour compression refrigeration system.
The compressor has to draw the refrigerant vapour from the evaporator so that a
low pressure and temperature can be maintained at which the refrigerant can boil
extracting heat from the refrigerant space.
The compressor then has to raise the pressure of the refrigerant to a level at
which it can condense by rejecting heat to the cooling medium in the condenser.
Classification of Compressors
1. According to working principle
Positive displacement
Non-Positive displacement
2. According to construction
Open type
Hermetic (or sealed) type
Semi hermetic (or semi-sealed) type
3. According to method of drive
Direct drive
Belt-driven
4. According to cooling system
Water cooled
Air-cooled
Refrigerant cooled
Oil-cooled
Applications:
(1) Reciprocating compressor 1 ton to 200 tons
(3.5 kW to 700 kW; 4.7hp to 940 hp)
(2) Rotary compressor fraction ton to 1 ton (0.75 kW to 3 kW; 1 hp to 4 hp)
(3) Scroll compressor < 1ton & 25 ton (3.5 kW & 90 kW; 4.7 hp to 120 hp)
(4) Screw compressor 20 to 1300 tons (70 kW to 4570 kW; 94 hp to 6130 hp)
Comparison – Hermetic and Semi Hermetic Compressor
Hermetic Semi hermetic
1. Encased in a steel shell, welded 1. Encased in cast iron housing
together which is bolted together
2. Vertical crank shaft 2. Horizontal crank shaft
3. 3500 rpm motor 3. 1750 rpm motor
4. Typically less than 1hp to 15 hp 4. Size can range from 1hp to
140 hp
5. Refrigerant cooled 5. Air, water and refrigerant
cooled
6. No field serviceable 6. Field serviceable
Positive displacement type compressors:
Compression is achieved by trapping a refrigerant vapour into an enclosed space
and then reducing its volume.
Since a fixed amount of refrigerant is trapped each time, its pressure rises as its
volume is reduced.
When the refrigerant pressure inside the compressor rises to a level of
condensing pressure, then the refrigerant is expelled from the enclosed space. And
a fresh change of refrigerant is drawn in and the cycle continues.
Since the flow of refrigerant to the compressor is not steady the positive
displacement type compressor is a pulsating flow device.
However since the operating speeds are normally very high the flow appears to
be almost steady on macroscopic time scale.
Since the flow is pulsating on a macroscopic time scale positive displacement
type compressors are prone to high wear, vibrations and noise levels.
Positive displacement type compressors can be classified into:
Reciprocating compressors
Rotary type with sliding vanes (rolling piston type or multiple vane type)
Rotary screw type (single screw or twin screw type)
Orbital compressors, and
Acoustic compressors
Roto-dynamic compressors:
The pressure rise is achieved by imparting kinetic energy or angular momentum
to a steadily flowing stream of refrigerant by a rotating mechanical element and
then converting the kinetic energy to pressure energy as the refrigerant flows
through a diverging passage.
Roto-dynamic compressors are steady flow devices hence are subjected to less
wear and vibrations.
Roto-dynamic compressors can be classified into:
i) Radial flow type
ii) Axial flow type
Centrifugal compressors are radial flow type compressors. They are widely
used in large capacity refrigeration and air conditioning systems.
Axial flow compressors are normally used in gas liquefaction applications.
Open type compressors:
In open type compressors the rotating shaft of the compressor extends through a
seal in the crank case for an external drive.
The compressor may be belt driven or gear driven.
The external drive may be a electric motor or an external engine (eg. Diesel
engine)
Open type compressors are normally used in medium to large capacity
refrigeration systems for all refrigerants and for ammonia.
Open type compressors are also characterized by:
High efficiency, flexibility better compressor cooling and serviceability
Both the compressor and the motor normally reject heat to the surrounding air
for efficient operation.
However since the rotating shaft has to extend through the seal, the refrigerant
leakage from the system cannot be eliminated.
Hence the refrigeration systems using open type compressors require a
refrigerant reservoir and the regular maintenance.
Hermetic compressors:
The motor and compressor are enclosed in the same housing to prevent
refrigerant leakage.
The housing has welded connections for the refrigerant inlet and outlet and for
power input socket.
As a result of this, there is virtually non possibility of refrigerant leakage from
the compressor.
In the hermetic compressor,
Heat cannot be rejected to the surrounding air since both the motor and the
compressor are enclosed in a shell.
Hence the cold suction gas is made to flow over the motor and the compressor
before entering the compressor.
This keeps the motor cool, however it reduces the efficiency of refrigeration
system as the heat rejected by the motor and the compressor become additional load
on the system.
If the refrigerant flow rate is not sufficient and or if the temperature is not low
enough the insulation on the winding of the motor can burn out due to over heating
and short circuiting may occur.
Hence these compressors perform satisfactorily over a narrow range of operating
conditions only.
The motor winding is in direct contact with the refrigerant hence only those
refrigerants which have high dielectric strength can be used in hermetic
compressors
Hermetic compressors are used in applications:
1. Where efficiency is not as important as customers convenience
(eg. Domestic refrigerators, room air conditioners)
2. Which use capillary tubes as expansion devices and are critically charged
systems
In addition hermetic compressors also offer low noise levels.
Hermetic compressors are not very flexible as it is difficult to vary their speed
to control the cooling capacity.
Semi hermetic compressors:
In some large capacity hermetic units, the cylinder head is removable so that the
valves and the piston can be serviced.
This type of unit is called a semi-hermetic or semi-sealed compressor.
Thus a semi-hermetic compressor offers limited serviceability.
Semi-hermetic compressors are commonly used in factory assembled units such
as package air conditioners.
Reciprocating compressors:
It is the work horse for refrigeration and air conditioning industry.
Available in capacities ranging from a few watts to hundred of kilowatts
Modern day reciprocating compressors are high speed (3000 to 3600 rpm) single
acting single or multi-cylinder (upto16 cylinders) type.
Rotary Compressors:
Rolling piston type
Multiple vane type
Screw type and
Scroll type
Rolling piston type compressors
These compressors are also known as fixed vane type compressors.
They belong to the class of positive displacement type as compression is
achieved by reducing the volume of the refrigerant.
These compressors are used in small refrigeration systems (upto 2KW capacity)
such as domestic refrigerators or air conditioners.
Working Principle:
The rotating shaft of the roller has its axis of rotation that matches with the
centerline of the cylinder, however , it is eccentric with respect to the roller.
This eccentricity of the shaft with respect to the roller creates suction and
compression of the refrigerant.
A single vane or blade is positioned in the non-rotating cylindrical block.
The rotating motion of the roller causes a reciprocating motion of the single vane.
This type of compressor does not require a suction valve but requires a discharge
valve.
The sealing between the high and low pressure sides has to be provided.
oAlong the line of contact between roller and cylindrical block.
oAlong the line of contact between vane and roller.
oBetween the vane and vane slot.
oBetween the roller and end – plates.
The leakage is controlled through hydrodynamic sealing and matching
between the mating components.
The effectiveness of the sealing depends on the clearance, compressor
speed, surface finish and oil viscosity.
Close tolerances and good surface finishing are required to minimize
internal leakage.
Hence, manufacturing of the compressors is difficult compared to
reciprocating type compressors.
The mass flow rate of the refrigerant through the compressor is given by
m = v(Vsw/Vs) = (v/Vs)(/4)(N/6)(A2-B2)L
A = Inner diameter of cylinder
B = Diameter of the roller
L = Length of the cylinder block
N = Rotational speed RPM
v = volumetric efficiency
Vs = specific volume of refrigerant at suction.
Multiple Vane Type Compressors
In multiple vane type compressors, the axis of rotation coincides with the
center of the roller (O), however , it is eccentric with respect to the center of the
cylinder(O’).
The rotor consists of a number of slots with sliding vanes.
During the running of the compressor, the sliding vanes, which are normally
made of non-metallic materials, are held against the cylinder due to centrifugal
forces.
The number of compression strokes produced in one revolution of the rotor is
equal to the number of sliding vanes, thus a 4-vane compressor produces 4
compression strokes in one rotation.
Sealing is required between the vanes and the cylinder, between the vanes and
the slots on the rotor and between the rotor and the end plate.
However, since pressure difference across each slot is only a fraction of the total
pressured difference, the sealing is not as critical as in fixed vane type compressor.
This type of compressor does not require suction or discharge valves.
However, check valves are used on discharge side to prevent reverse rotation
during off – time due to pressure difference.
Since there are no discharge valves, the compressed refrigerant is open to the
discharge port when it has been compressed through a fixed built- in volume ratio,
depending upon the geometry.
This implies that these compressors have a fixed built – in volume ratio.
The built - in volume ratio is defined as “ Ratio of a cell as it is closed off from
the suction port to its volume before it opens to the discharge port”
Since the volume ratio is fixed, the pressure ratio, p is given by:
p = (Pd/Ps) = Vbk
Since no centrifugal force is present when the compressor is off, the multiple
vanes will not be pressed against the cylinder walls during the off-period.
As a result, high pressure refrigerant from the discharge side can flow back into
the side and pressure equalization between high and low pressure sides takes
place.
This is beneficial from the compressor motor point –of- view as it reduces the
required starting torque.
However, this introduces cycling loss due to the entry of hot and high pressure
refrigerant liquid into the evaporator.
Hence normally a non return check valve is used on the discharge side which
prevents the entry of refrigerant liquid from high pressure side into evaporator
through the compressor during off- time, at the same time there will be pressure
equalization across the vanes of the compressor.
The compressors are normally oil-flooded type hence oil separators are
required.
Characteristics of Vane Type Compressors
Low mass to displacement ratio in combination with compact size makes them
ideal for transport applications.
Both single stage (upto – 40oC evaporator and 60oC condensing temperature)
and two single stage (upto – 50oC) cooling capacity in the range of 2 – 40 kW are
available for a wide range of refrigerants such as R22, ammonia, R404a etc.
Cooling capacity is normally controlled either by compressor speed regulation
or suction throttling.
Screw Type Compressors - Twin Screw Type
The twin screw type compressor consists of two mating helically grooved rotors
, one male and other female.
The male rotor drives the female rotor.
The male rotor has lobes while the female rotor has flumes or gullies.
The frequently used lobe – pulley combinations are [4,6] [5,6]and [5,7]
For the [4,6] combination the male rotor rotates at 3600 rpm , the female rotor
rotates at 2400 rpm.
The flow is mainly in the axial direction.
Suction and compression takes place as the rotors unmesh and mesh.
When one lobe gully combination begins to unmesh the opposite lobe gully
combination begins to mesh.
With 4 male lobes rotating at 3600 rpm 4 inter lobe volumes are compressed per
revolution thus giving 4x3600 = 14400 discharge per minute.
Discharge takes place at a point decided by the designed built – in volume ratio
which depends entirely on the location of the delivery port and the geometry of the
compressor.
Since the built – in volume ratio is fixed by the geometry a particular
compressor is designed for a particular built – in pressure ratio.
However, difference built – in ratio can be obtained by changing the position of
the discharge port using a slide valve.
If the built – in pressure at the end of compression is less than the condensing
pressure high pressure refrigerant from discharge manifold flows back into the
interlobe space when the discharge port is uncovered. (under compression)
If the built- in pressure is higher than the condensing pressure the compressed
refrigerant rushes out in an unrestrained expansion as soon as the port is
uncovered ( over compression).
Both under compression and over compression are undesirable as they lead to
loss in efficiency.
Lubrication and sealing between the rotors is obtained by injecting
lubricating oil between the rotors.
The oil also helps in cooling the compressor, as a result very high pressure
ratios ( upto 20:1) are possible without overheating.
The capacity is normally controlled (down to 10% of the full load) with the
help of a side valve.
As the slide valve is opened some amount of suction refrigerant escapes to
the suction side without being compressed.
For a given built – in volume ratio the efficiency reaches a peak at a
particular optimum pressure ratio.
The compression efficiency drops when the system operates at off – design
conditions.
However, when operated at the optimum pressure ratio the efficiency is much
higher than other types of compressors.
As the rotor rotates at high speed screw compressors can handle fairly large
amounts of refrigerant flow rates compared to other positive displacement type
compressors.
Screw compressors are available in the capacity range of 70 – 4600 kW
They are available for a wide variety of refrigerants and applications.
Compared to reciprocating compressors screw compressors are balanced and hence
do not suffer from vibration problems.
Screw compressors are rugged and are more reliable than reciprocating
compressors:They are shown to run for 30000 – 40000 hours between major
overhauls.
Single – Screw Compressors
They consist of a single helical screw and two planet wheels or gate rotors.
The helical screw is housed in a cylindrical casing with suction port at one end
and discharge port at the other end.
Suction and compression are obtained as the screw and gate rotors unmesh and
mesh.
The high and low pressure regions in the cylinder casing are separated by the gate
rotors.
The screw is driven by an electric motor.
The gate rotors are normally made of plastic materials.
A small power is required to rotate the gate rotors as the frictional losses between
the metallic screw and the plastic gate rotors is very small.
Similar to twin – screw, lubrication, sealing and compressor cooling is achieved
by injecting lubricating oil into the compressor.
An oil separator, oil cooler and pump are required to circulate the lubricating oil.
Scroll compressors
Scroll compressors are orbital motion, positive displacement type compressors, in
which suction and compression is obtained by using two mating, spiral shaped,
scroll members, one fixed and the other orbiting.
An anti-rotation coupling is used to maintain a fixed angular relation of 180
degrees between the fixed and orbiting scrolls.
Each scroll member is open at one end and bound by a base plate at the other
end.
Scroll compressors are used in small capacity ( 3 to 50 KW ) refrigeration, air
conditioning and heat pump applications.
They are normally hermetic type.
Compressor capacity is normally controlled by variable speed inverter drives.
Manufacturing is relatively difficult due to the need for very close tolerances
between the fixed and orbiting scroll members.
Scroll compressors offer several advantages:
Large suction and discharge ports reduce pressure losses during suction
and discharge.
Physical separation of suction and compression reduce heat transfer to
suction gas, leading to high volumetric efficiency.
High compression efficiency, low noise and vibration compared to
reciprocating compressors.
Compact with minimum number of moving parts.
How compression is achieved in scroll compressors:
The scroll compressor consist of two in volute spirals each positioned 180oC
from each other. The position of the scrolls from crescent shaped pockets that
vary in size as the moving scroll orbits about the fixed scroll.
During the orbit, the pockets of gas move toward the in volute center while
reducing in size. This reduction in size increases the pressure of the gas trapped
in the packet before this is discharged at the central portion of the scrolls
Moving scroll is coupled to motor by means of an oldham coupling
CENTRIFUGALCOMPRESSORS
Introduction
Centrifugal compressors, also known as turbo – compressors belong to the roto
– dynamic type.
In these compressors the required pressure rise takes place due to the continuos
conversion of angular momentum imparted to the refrigerant vapour by a high –
speed impeller into static pressure.
Unlike reciprocating compressors, centrifugal compressors are steady – flow
devices, hence, compressors are steady – flow devices, hence, they are subjected
to less vibration and noise.
WORKING PRINCIPLE
Low – pressure refrigerant enters the compressor through the eye of the impeller.
From the eye, the refrigerant enters the flow passage formed by the impeller
blades, which rotate at very high speed.
As the refrigerant flows through passages towards the tip of the impeller, its
angular momentum and static pressure increases.
From the tip of the impeller, the refrigerant flows into a stationary diffuser.
In the diffuser, the refrigerant is decelerated and as a result the velocity, pressure
drop is converted into static pressure rise, thus increasing the static pressure further.
The vapour from the diffuser enters the volute casing where further conversion of
velocity into static pressure takes place due to the divergent shape of the volute.
Finally, the pressurized refrigerant leaves the compressor from the volute casing
The gain in momentum is due to the transfer of momentum from the high speed
impeller blades to the refrigerant confined between the blade passages.
The increase in static pressure is due to the self – compression caused by the
centrifugal action.
The static pressure produced in the impeller is equal to the static head, which
would be produced by an equivalent gravitational column.
If the impeller blades are radial and the inlet diameter of the impeller is small,
then the static head, h developed in the impeller passage for a single stage is given
by:
h= v2/g
v = peripheral velocity
Increase in total pressure, P is given by:
P = gh = v2
For a given refrigerant, pressure rise depends only on tip speed of the blade. The
tip speed is proportional to the rotational speed ( RPM ) and impeller diameter.
The maximum permissible tip speed is limited by the strength of the structural
materials and the sonic velocity of the refrigerant.
Hence the maximum achievable pressure rise ( maximum achievable
temperature lift ) of single stage centrifugal compressor is limited.
Multi – staging is required for higher temperature lifts.
In multi – stage centrifugal compressors, the discharge of the lower stage
compressor is fed to the inlet of the next stage of compressor and so on.
In multi – stage centrifugal compressors, the impeller diameter of all stages
remains same, but the width of the impeller becomes progressively narrower in the
direction of flow as density increases progressively.
The blades of the compressor are either forward curved or backward curved or
radial.
The stationary diffuser can be vaned or vaneless.
The vanes can be fixed or adjustable.
Vaned diffusers are compact compared to the vaneless diffusers and are
commonly used for high discharge pressure applications.
However, the presence of vanes in the diffusers can give rise to shocks, as the
refrigerant velocities at the tip of the impeller blade could reach sonic velocities in
large high speed centrifugal compressors.
In vane less diffusers the velocity of refrigerant in the diffuser decreases and the
static pressure increases as the radius increases
As a result, for a required pressure rise, the required size of the vaneless diffuser
could be large compared to vaned diffuser.
However, the problem of shock does not rise with the vaneless diffusers as the
velocity can be diffused smoothly.
Generally adjustable guide vanes or free rotation vanes are added at the inlet
( eye ) of the impeller for capacity control.