Atomic Structure
Lecture - 02
In 1910 the New Zealand physicist Ernest Rutherford, decided to use a particles to probe
the structure of atoms.
A stream of high energy α–particles from a radioactive source was directed at a thin foil
(thickness ∼ 100 nm) of gold metal.
The thin gold foil had a circular fluorescent zinc sulphide screen around it.
Whenever α–particles struck the screen, a tiny flash of light was produced at that
point.
Expectation
According to Thomson model of atom, the mass of each gold atom in the foil should have
been spread evenly over the entire atom, and α–particles had enough energy to pass
directly through such a uniform distribution of mass.
It was expected that the particles would slow down and change directions only by a small
angles as they passed through the foil.
Observation & Results
Most of the α–particles passed through the gold
foil undeflected.
Many were deflected through moderate angles.
a very few α–particles, but the 0.001% (∼1 in
20,000) bounced back, that is, were deflected by
nearly 180° .
Similar results were observed using foils of other metals.
It was quite the most incredible event that has ever happened to me in my life. It was
almost as if you fired a 15-inch shell into a piece of tissue paper and it came back and hit
you.
Explanation
1. According to Rutherford, most of the atom must be empty space.
This explains why the majority of a particles passed through the gold foil
with little or no deflection.
Explanation
2. The atom’s positive charges, are all concentrated called nucleus, which is a
dense central core within the atom.
Whenever alpha particle came close to a nucleus in the scattering experiment, it
experienced a large repulsive force and therefore a large deflection.
A particle traveling directly toward a nucleus would be completely repelled
and its direction would be reversed
3. The volume occupied by the nucleus is negligibly small as compared to the
total volume of atom.
The radius of the atom is about 10–10 m, while that of nucleus is 10–15 m.
One can appreciate this difference in size by realising that if a cricket ball
represents a nucleus, then the radius of atom would be about 5 km
Conclusion
Positive charges and most of mass of atoms was densely concentrated in small region.
This very small portion of atom was called nucleus
Nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the nucleus with high speed in
circular paths called orbits.
Electrons and nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction
Rutherfords model resembles solar system in which nucleus plays the role of sun and
electron that of revolving planets
Dis-similarlities between solar system and Atomic model
Sun and planets are very big bodies and uncharged while nucleus and electrons are very small
objects and charged
Revolution of the planets in the solar system is governed by gravitational force
while the revolution of electrons is governed electrostatics forces.
Solar system there is only one planet which revolve in any orbit, but in nuclear model
more than one electron may rotate in any particular orbit.
Problem - 1
Problem - 2
Problem - 3
Problem - 4
Problem - 5
Problem - 6
Exercise – 2.40
In Rutherford’s experiment, generally the thin foil of heavy atoms, like gold, platinum etc.
have been used to be bombarded by the α-particles. If the thin foil of light atoms like
aluminium etc. is used, what difference would be observed from the above results ?
More number of alpha particles will pass as the nucleus of the lighter atoms is
small, smaller number of alpha particles will be deflected as a number of
positive charges is less than on the lighter nuclei
Exemplar - 01
Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford’s α -particle
scattering experiment?
Most of the space in the atom is empty.
The radius of the atom is about 10–10 m while that of nucleus is 10–15 m.
Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy called orbits.
Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic forces of attraction.
Rutherford oil drop experiment Characterized - Proton
1897 1910
1909 1911
Thomson - Plum Rutherford model
pudding
The specific charge of this rays was found to vary with nature of gas and was maximum if H2
Canal ray particles have e/m ratios many times smaller than those of electrons, due to
their much greater masses.
They possess mass many times the mass of an electron.
Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the fundamental unit of
electrical charge.
Fundamental constituent of all matter having a mass 1.672×10-24 g and charge
1.602×10-19 was proton
Rutherford’s model of atomic structure left one major problem unsolve
It was known that hydrogen, the simplest atom, contains only one proton and
that the helium atom contains two protons.
Therefore, the ratio of the mass of a helium atom to that of a hydrogen atom
should be 2:1. (Because electrons are much lighter than protons, their
contribution to atomic mass can be ignored.)
In reality, however, the ratio is 4:1. Rutherford and others postulated that there must
be another type of subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus; the proof was provided
by another English physicist,
Discovery of Neutron
Later, a need was felt for the presence of electrically neutral particle as one of the
constituent of atom. These particles were discovered by Chadwick (1932) by
bombarding a thin sheet of beryllium or boron sheet by α-particles.
When electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly greater than that of
protons were emitted. He named these particles as neutrons.
1.672×10-24 g
Exemplar - 05
Which of the following statements about the electron is incorrect?
It is a negatively charged particle.
The mass of electron is equal to the mass of neutron.
It is a basic constituent of all atoms.
It is a constituent of cathode rays.
oil drop experiment Characterised - Proton
1897 1910 1932
1909 1911
Thomson - Plum Rutherford model Neutron
pudding
Observations obtained from the experiments mentioned in the previous sections
have suggested that Dalton’s indivisible atom is composed of sub-atomic particles
carrying positive and negative charges.
The major problems before the scientists after the discovery of sub-atomic particles were:
According to classic theory of electromagnetism if charged particles revolves around
oppositely charged particles the former one will radiate energy resulting decrease in its
speed.
Electron lose energy continuously and electron finally fall into nucleus. (10-8second)
Most important drawback no information about electronic structure of atom.
(Distribution of electrons around the nucleus)
Exemplar - 28
Which of the following will not show deflection from the path on passing through an
electric field? Proton, cathode rays, electron, neutron
neutron
Problem - 7
Problem - 8
Oil drop experiment Characterised - Proton
1897 1910 1932
1909 1911
Thomson - Plum Rutherford Neutron
pudding model
Only a few years after Rutherford’s scattering experiments, H. G. J. Moseley (1887–1915)
studied X-rays given off by various elements.
Moseley generated X-rays by aiming a beam of high-energy electrons at a solid target
made of a single pure element
On the basis of his mathematical analysis of these X-ray data, he concluded that
Each element differs from the preceding element
by having one more positive charge in its
nucleus.
This discovery led to the realization that atomic number, related to the electrical
properties of the atom, was more fundamental to determining the properties of the
elements than atomic weight.
Square root of the frequency of x rays thus emitted are directly proportional to the
number of positive charges present in the nucleus of the atom used as anode
𝛾 = 𝑎 (𝑍 − 𝑏)
a and b are constant
Z are atomic number
Atomic Number (A)
The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in every atom of
that element.
Charge on proton present in the nucleus is equal but opposite to that of electron
For Neutral Atomic number = number of proton or number of electron in neutral
atom
For ion Number of electron = Z – charge on
ion
Mass number (A)
Mass number tells you how many protons and neutrons there are in the nucleus of an atom
Mass number = number of protons (Z) + number of neutrons (n)
protons and neutrons present in the nucleus are collectively known as
nucleons
Exercise – 2.1
(i) Calculate the number of electrons which will together weigh one gram.
(ii) Calculate the mass and charge of one mole of electrons.
(i) 1.099 × 1027 electrons
(ii) 5.48 × 10–7 kg, 9.65 × 104 C
Exercise – 2.3
How many neutrons and protons are there in the following nuclei ?
88
13
6𝐶 , 168𝐶 , 24 56
12𝑀𝑔 , 26𝐹𝑒 , 38𝑆𝑟 7,6
8,8
12,12
30,26
50, 38
Exercise – 2.42
An element with mass number 81 contains 31.7% more neutrons as compared
to protons. Assign the atomic symbol
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses; they are atoms
containing the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses; they are atoms containing
the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Isobars
Atoms having same mass number but different atomic number
14 14 40S, 40Cl, 40Ar, 40K, and 40Ca.
6𝐶 7𝑁
Isotones
Atoms having same number of neutron but different number of protons
14 16 15
6𝐶 8𝑂 7𝑁
Nuclide Various species of atom
Nucleons Sub atomic particles in the nucleus of an atom
Iso-electronic speciesAtoms , molecules or ions having the same number of electron
CO, CN, N2
Problem for Practise
Exercise – 2.2
(i) Calculate the total number of electrons present in one mole of methane.
(ii) Find
(a) the total number and
(b) the total mass of neutrons in 7 mg of 14C. (Assume that mass of a
neutron = 1.675 × 10–27 kg).
(iii) Find
(a) the total number and
(b) the total mass of protons in 34 mg of NH3 at STP.
Will the answer change if the temperature and pressure are changed ?
(i) 6.022 × 1024 electrons
(ii) (a) 2.4088 × 1021 neutrons
(b) 4.0347 × 10–6 kg
(iii) (a) 1.2044 × 1022 protons
(b) 2.015 × 10–5 kg
Exercise – 2.3
How many neutrons and protons are there in the following nuclei ?
88
13
6𝐶 , 168𝐶 , 24 56
12𝑀𝑔 , 26𝐹𝑒 , 38𝑆𝑟 7,6
8,8
12,12
30,26
50, 38
Exercise – 2.26
An atom of an element contains 29 electrons and 35 neutrons. Deduce (i) the
number of protons
Exercise – 2.27
Give the number of electrons in the species 𝐻2+ , H2 and 𝑂2+
Exercise – 2.42
An element with mass number 81 contains 31.7% more neutrons as compared
to protons. Assign the atomic symbol
Exercise – 2.43
An ion with mass number 37 possesses one unit of negative charge. If the ion contains
11.1% more neutrons than the electrons, find the symbol of the ion.
Exercise – 2.44
An ion with mass number 56 contains 3 units of positive charge and 30.4%
more neutrons than electrons. Assign the symbol to this ion
Problem –
Example – 2.2
The number of electron, Protons and neutrons are equal to 18, 16 and 16 respectively.
Assign the proper symbol to the species
The atomic number is equal to number of protons = 16.
The element is sulphur (S).
Atomic mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons = 16 + 16 = 32
Species is not neutral as the number of protons is not equal to electrons.
It is anion (negatively charged) with charge equal to excess electrons = 18 – 16 = 2.
32 2−
Symbol is 16𝑆
Problem - 14
Problem - 11
How many protons , neutrons and electrons present in 0.18g of 30
15𝑃?
Exercise – 2.4
Write the complete symbol for the atom with the given atomic number (Z) and
atomic mass (A)
(i) Z = 17, A = 35.
(ii) Z = 92, A = 233.
(iii) Z = 4, A = 9.
Example – 2.1
80
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in Br 35𝐵𝑟
Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral
Number of protons = number of electrons = Z = 35
Number of neutrons = 80 – 35 = 45
Exercise – 2.41
35
Symbols 35
79
𝐵𝑟 and 79Br can be written, whereas symbols 79𝐵𝑟 and 35Br are not
acceptable. Answer briefly
Exemplar - 29
An atom having atomic mass number 13 has 7 neutrons. What is the atomic number of the
atom?
A = 13, A – Z = 7 ∴ Z = 6 atomic number = 6
Exemplar - 07
Two atoms are said to be isobars if.
They have same atomic number but different mass number.
They have same number of electrons but different number of neutrons.
They have same number of neutrons but different number of electrons.
Sum of the number of protons and neutrons is same but the number of protons is
different.
Problem - 15
Problem - 16
Exemplar - 48
Assertion (A) : All isotopes of a given element show the same type of chemical
behaviour. Reason (R) : The chemical properties of an atom are controlled by the
number of electrons in the atom.
Both A and R are true and R is the correct explanation of A. (Answer)
Both A and R are true but R is not the correct explanation of A.
A is true but R is false.
Both A and R are false.
Exemplar - 17
Identify the pairs which are not of isotopes?
13
6𝑋 ,
12
6𝑋
35 37
17 𝑋, 17𝑌
14 14
6 𝑋, 7𝑌
8 8
4𝑋, 5𝑌
Problem – 18
Problem - 19
Exercise – 2.22
Which of the following are isoelectronic species i.e., those having the same
number of electrons? Na+ , K+ , Mg2+, Ca2+, S2–, Ar
Na+ , Mg2+, Ca2+, Ar , S2–, K+
Exemplar - 20
In which of the following pairs, the ions are iso-electronic?
Na+, Mg2+
Al3+, O–
Na+ , O2–
N3–, Cl–
Exercise – 2.27
Give the number of electrons in the species 𝐻2+ , H2 and O2+
1 , 2, 15
Problem –
From the following pairs of ions which one is not an iso-electronic pair?
O2–, F–
Na+, Mg2+
Mn2+, Fe3+
Fe2+, Mn2+
Problem –