Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
08-09-2025 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Unit -1 – Chapter 2
Battery Characterization
Comparison of Different Energy Storage Technologies for HEVs
Modeling Based on Equivalent Electric Circuits
Battery Charging Control
Charge Management of Storage Devices
Flywheel Energy Storage System
Hydraulic Energy Storage System
Fuel Cells and Hybrid Fuel Cell Energy Storage System modeling.
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Introduction
In this chapter, the requisite energy storage systems for EVs and HEVs are
discussed.
In a HEV or Plug-in HEV (PHEV), onboard batteries or Ultracapacitors are
charged from the internal combustion engine/generator set or from the electric
power grid.
The chemical energy stored in batteries is converted to electrical energy for traction
motor and vehicle propulsion.
Also, energy storage systems are responsible for recuperating regenerative braking
energy to further increase vehicle efficiency. Thus, the performance of EVs and
HEVs depend on the energy storage systems to a large extent.
Therefore, this chapter is devoted to a discussion of battery, Ultracapacitor and fuel
cell technology.
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Introduction (Contd…)
Here, we will focus on the techniques of modelling, hybridization, equalization,
charging control for batteries and Ultracapacitors.
Batteries are made of cells where chemical energy is converted to electrical energy
and vice versa.
The battery energy storage system (BESS) comprises mainly batteries, the power
electronics-based conditioning system and a control system.
In HEVs, batteries provide energy for the traction motor and store regenerative
energy; a power electronics converter, typically of bidirectional capability, provides
an interface between the batteries and power produced by the onboard internal
combustion engine or utility power in the case of a PHEV; the control system is
responsible for power and energy management including charging / discharging
and equalization control.
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Introduction (Contd…)
The above description applies as well for the Ultracapacitor energy storage system
(UESS).
The main difference is that the battery is an electrochemical energy conversion
device while the Ultracapacitor does not involve any chemical reactions.
The BESS or UESS topology is illustrated in Fig 1.
Fig 1: HEV BESS/UESS Topology
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Introduction (Contd…)
In order to have the desired voltage rating and current rating for application in
HEVs, many cells must be connected in series and/or in parallel in the BESS or
UESS.
Voltage balancing or equalization is required if more than three cells are connected
in series.
Generally speaking, a battery has the characteristics of high energy density and
relatively low power density.
The internal resistance is the major factor for its limited discharging and charging
current capability.
The internal equivalent series resistance (ESR) has different values under charging
and discharging operating conditions.
The values are also dependent on the frequency of the discharging current.
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Introduction (Contd…)
For lithium-ion batteries, the internal resistance could increase by 50% from 1000
Hz to 100 Hz.
The ampere-hour capacity is affected by the discharging current rate and is
modelled by Peukert’s equation, Cp = Ikt, where k: the Peukert constant; k =1 for an
ideal battery.
The charging and discharging efficiencies are nonlinear functions of current and
the state of charge (SOC).
The battery can be modelled as an equivalent circuit such as
an internal resistance model or
a resistance–capacitance (RC) model.
In an internal resistance model:
a battery is modelled as a voltage source and an internal resistor.
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Introduction (Contd…)
Both the voltage source and the internal resistor are functions of the SOC and temperature,
which can be implemented as lookup tables.
In a RC model:
a battery is represented as a parallel combination of two RC branches.
The very large capacitor models the battery’s charge capacity while the smaller capacitor
models the time constant due to surface effects that limit the current.
The model can be implemented as an S function in MATLAB/Simulink.
On the other hand, when compared to common capacitors, the Ultracapacitor
(electric double-layer capacitor) has a very high energy density, which could be
thousands of times greater than a high-capacity electrolytic capacitor.
Larger double-layer capacitors can have capacitances up to 5000 F as of 2010.
Compared to batteries, an Ultracapacitor has the characteristics of high power
density and relatively lower energy density.
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Introduction (Contd…)
Its equivalent internal resistance is decades lower than that of a battery, thus
allowing decades of higher discharging /charging current.
Its overall round-trip efficiency is higher than that of a battery.
Its capacitance is huge compared to an ordinary electrolyte capacitor, allowing
enough energy storage for HEV acceleration power requirements.
Note that the internal resistance and capacitance are highly dependent on the
frequency because of the porous nature of the electrodes.
One big advantage of the Ultracapacitor is that its SOC is allowed to vary more
widely and thus has longer life cycles. Its capability to provide high power bursts is
ideal for hybrid vehicle applications.
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Introduction (Contd…)
An Ultracapacitor can also be modelled as:
an internal resistance model or
RC model in the same way as for a battery.
The difference is that the Ultracapacitor’s internal resistance for charging is typically
the same as for discharging.
To predict the behaviour of battery/ Ultracapacitor voltage and current during
transient operation such as acceleration and deceleration, physics-based dynamic
models are needed to account for the time constants due to the electrochemical
reactions in batteries or double-layer effects in Ultracapacitors.
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Thank You
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BSFCEV
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Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering