Engineering Thermofluids II

Lecture 3
• Recap of Lecture 2

• To use velocity fields to describe the motion of packages of fluid at

different locations of a flow
• To recognize the Navier-Stokes Equations as the set of equations that
govern fluid flow
• To describe streamlines, streaklines and pathlines as tools to visualize
fluid flow
• To explain the fundamental characteristics of a boundary layer when
fluid flows over an object

• To provide a description of flow separation

• To calculate the drag forces for fluid flow over a flat plate

Cengel: Chapter 15, Munson: Chapters 4.1, 4.2, 9

 Review: Reynolds Transport Theorem
DBsys BCV 
= − Bin + B out
Dt t
1-D flow

DBsys BCV
= − 1v1 A1b1 +  2 v2 A2b2
Dt t
Munson et. al.

General case

DBsys BCV 
= +  bv  nˆ dA
Dt t CS

Mass balance equation Energy balance equation

·
F #
1

>
-

-
 Velocity Field
• Fields: Describe certain properties at a certain point in space: eg.
Electric field, Magnetic field, Temperature field
• Velocity field of a fluid: The velocity of an infinitesimal package of
fluid at a particular position and time


V (x, y, z , t ) = u (x, y, z , t )iˆ + v(x, y, z , t ) ˆj + w(x, y, z , t )kˆ

Speed of the package of fluid:


(
V = V = u 2 + v 2 + w2 )
1/ 2

3
 Velocity Fields of 1-D, 2-D and 3-D Flows
• 3-D fluid flow: eg. Air over blades of a turbine, air
over a car

V (x, y, z , t ) = u (x, y, z , t )iˆ + v(x, y, z , t ) ˆj + w(x, y, z , t )kˆ

• 2-D fluid flow: eg. Fluid flow between two plates


V (x, y, t ) = u (x, y, t )iˆ + v(x, y, t ) ˆj

• 1-D fluid flow: eg. Fluid flow in pipes


V (x, t ) = u (x, t )iˆ
#I
/
-
=
 Velocity Fields of Steady and Unsteady Flows

• Steady flow: the velocity at a given point in space V ( x, y, z , t )
does not vary with time =0
t


• Unsteady flow: the velocity at a given point in space V ( x, y, z , t )
varies with time
0
t

Acceleration of Packages of Fluid

• If you follow a particular package of fluid in a steady flow, its velocity can still
change with time
     
 dV ( x, y, z , t ) V V dx V dy V dz V = uiˆ + vˆj + wkˆ
a= = + + +
dt t x dt y dt z dt
   
V V V V
= + u+ v+ w
t x y z
 Use of Velocity Fields
• Knowing the velocity field and the pressure of a fluid in a fluid
flow system allows us to fully describe system
• This information can be obtained by solving the Navier-Stokes
Equations
• Unfortunately, the equations are not solvable analytically in
most situations
• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) C. L. Navier
Navier-Stokes Equations (1785-1836)

(Conservation of mass)

(Momentum balance)

(Momentum balance)

(Momentum balance)

Sir G. G. Stoke
(1918-1903)
 Streamlines
• A streamline is a line that is always tangent to the velocity field.
• It shows the direction that the fluid will travel in at any point in time
• Similar to E-field lines which is a visualization tool for the E-field
• If the flow is steady, the streamlines are fixed lines in space.
• For unsteady flows, the streamlines may change shape with time.

7
 Streaklines and Pathlines
• Streakline
• Formed by all particles in a flow that have
previously passed through a common point
• Can be produced by continuously injecting
marked fluid (smoke in air or dye in water)
at a given location
• Pathline
• A line traced out by a given particle as it
flows from one point to another
• Produced in the laboratory by marking a
fluid particle (smoke in air or dye in water)
and taking a time exposure photograph of
its motion.

In steady flows, streamlines, streaklines and

pathlines coincide 8
 Example
Consider the two-dimensional steady flow with the velocity field:
𝑉0
𝑉= −𝑥𝑖Ƹ + 𝑦𝑗Ƹ
𝑙
a) Determine the streamlines for this flow.
b) What is the pathline for a particle which is at (10,0.1) at t=0?

a
a -
=
=

& x

T
-

= -
= -
= -
In 2+ c
In y
+
In 2 e
=>
My : 9
In say) :
xy
=
3
Y E
- x + Ve y ve
+

T
=

- E
X
2

2 =
=

1
S Votre

l + ve

u
=-
Ve

=&
:
-

↓
+ Vl
Yes i :

-
ve
y
:

U =

( - x)
v
: ()
u =
-
Vl
V = -
Ve
 =
u
dT v = e

at

or
- a
H

n :
.
In x =
ot
+ C lay Not
:
+ C

At + =
0 ,
x =
10 At t :
0 ,
y = 0 .
1

21 = In (10) C2 : In 10 .
1)

Inc :

-Not + In (10) -

In y
: + In (0 1) .
-

&
① + o
In (10) In (0 1) : In (0x0 -

D : In (1)
In Im +
.

+
y
=

=
O

In (sey) =
0

my /

epia
:

x
 External Flow - Flow over a body
• Understanding of external flow is important in the design of many
engineering systems
• Such as aircrafts, automobiles, buildings, ships, submarines, and all kinds
of turbines.
• Last semester: simple consideration of lift and drag on an object in fluid
• More questions:

• What are the behaviors of the fluid?

• How are the drag and lift coefficients
affected by the fluid flow and the
object considered?

10
 Reynolds Numbers of Flows Past an Object
• For an object with a given shape, the flow characteristics depend very
strongly on various parameters such as size, orientation, speed, and fluid
properties.
• Similar to internal flow, these parameters can be put in one
dimensionless number: Reynolds number
• Reynolds number represents the ratio of inertial effects to viscous
effects
UD
Internal flow: Re =


External flow: U

Re =


 is the characteristic length of the object

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 Typical Range of Reynolds Number in
External Flows
• Inviscid fluid (μ = 0), Re = ∞
• Fluid with negligible inertial effects (ρ = 0), Re = 0
• In most external flows we encounter, the fluid is air or water
U
• The characteristic length of the objects: 0.01 m <  < 10 m Re =

• Velocities are typically between 0.01 m/s and 100 m/s
• Typical Reynolds number range is between 10 and 109

• There are also flows with very small Re

• Settling of small particles of dirt in a lake or
stream
• Objects moving through large-viscosity oils
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 Characteristics of External Flow
• Example: a finite thin plate of length l in a fluid of upstream velocity U

• Boundary layer: region of thickness close to the plate in which the fluid
velocity changes from the upstream value of U to zero velocity on the
plate – due to no-slip condition

• Thickness of the boundary layer increases as the fluid flows along the
surface of the object

• Wake region: The region of flow behind the object where the effects of
the object on velocity are felt
Length of
the plate
U
Re =

13
 External Flow with Different Re
• Low Reynolds number (~ 0.1):
• Viscous effects are strong and the plate
affects the uniform upstream flow far ahead,
above, below, and behind the plate
• Boundary layer extends far, large wake region
• Reynolds number is increased (~ 10):
• Boundary layer closer to the plate
• The region in which viscous effects are
important becomes smaller
• High Reynolds number (~ 107)
• Flow dominated by inertial effects
• Viscous effects are negligible everywhere
except in a region very close to the plate
• Thin wake region behind the plate
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 Boundary Layer
• Many ways to define where the viscous
effects is significant and where it is negligible

• Velocity of flow is smaller when it is closer to

the surface of the plate

• We define the boundary layer thickness (δ(x))

as the distance from the plate at which the
fluid velocity is within 1% of the upstream
velocity

• δ(x) increases with x

• The flow in the boundary layer may be

laminar or turbulent, depending on various
parameters involved
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 Another Example: Flow Past a Cylinder
• Characteristic length: diameter of
the cylinder

UD
Re =


• Low Reynolds number:

• The presence of the cylinder and
the accompanying viscous effects
are felt throughout a large
portion of the flow
• The streamlines are essentially
symmetric about the center of
the cylinder

16
 Another Example: Flow Past a Cylinder
• Increased Reynolds number
• Inertia becomes more important
• Boundary layer becomes thinner
• The fluid cannot follow the
curved path around to the rear
of the body due to inertia
• Flow separation occurs: vortices
formed behind the cylinder
• High Reynolds number
• Thin boundary layer on the front
portion of the cylinder
• Irregular, unsteady wake region
with flow separation

17
 More on Flow Separation
• Friction drag: Due to the friction when the fluid flow against the object
• Pressure drag: Due to difference pressure of the fluid on the object

• Separated region: low pressure region behind the body where vortices
and back flows occur
• The larger the separated region, the larger the pressure drag.
• The separated region is smaller if the flow inside the boundary layer is
turbulent, due to more efficient momentum transfer

18
 Flow Separation on an Airplane Wing
• Separation may also occur on a streamlined body such as an airplane wing
• Angle of attack: the angle the incoming fluid stream makes with the
chord (the line that connects the nose and the end) of the body.

• Separation occurs on the top surface at a

sufficiently large angle of attack ( ~ > 160 for
most airfoils)
• Lift reduces and drag increases drastically
• Turbulator installed on top of wings to induce
turbulent flow

19
 Flow on a Long Flat Plate – Study of
Boundary Layer Characteristics
• Characteristic length: distance from the leading edge of the plate (x)

Ux
Re x =

• Reynolds numbers change as the fluid flow along the plate
• In the beginning, Re is small – Laminar flow (orderly flow)
• As Re increases, the flow enters a transition region before becoming
turbulent (irregular flow)

20
 Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow
• Transition from a laminar boundary layer to a turbulent boundary layer
occurs at a critical value of the Reynolds number
• Rex,critical: around 2 × 105 ~ 3 × 106.
• Location where the transition starts depends on many factors like, the
flow velocity, the fluid viscosity, the roughness and geometry of the
surface etc…
• For a smooth flat plate, Rex,critical ~ 5 × 105

21
 Laminar Boundary Layer Thickness

• δ(x) is the distance from the plate at which u = 0.99 U

• How to get u(x,y,z) at different positions? – Navier-Stokes Equations
• No analytical solutions, solve computationally with approximations

• For Laminar flow

4.91x
( )
 x = Rex < 5 × 105
Re x

• δ(x) increases as x1/2

22
 Drag on Flat Plates - Laminar Boundary Layer

• The flow also produces a drag on the plate surface

• Local friction coefficient:

0.6464
c f ,x = Rex < 5 × 105
Re x

• Obtained computationally with approximations

• It is the drag coefficient at distance x from the plate leading edge
• For a plate of length l :

1 
C D =  c f , x dx =
1.328 U 2
FD = C D A
 0 Re  2

• FD is the drag force due to friction, A is the platform area

23
 Example – Boundary Layer Transition
A fluid flows steadily past a flat plate with a velocity of U = 3.41 m/s.
At approximately what location will the boundary layer become turbulent, and how
thick is the boundary layer at that point if the fluid is (a) water at 15.6 °C (b)
standard air, or (c) glycerin at 20 °C?

24
 Turbulent Flow in the Boundary Layer

• Similar to flow in pipes, turbulent flows in the boundary layer is random,

irregular with vortices
• δ(x) can be approximately expressed as

0.38 x
 (x ) = 5 × 105 < Rex < 107
(Re x )1/ 5

• δ(x) increases as x4/5

• Drag on the plate by the fluid in a turbulent flow is larger than that in
the laminar case due to more efficient momentum exchange

25
 Drag Coefficient of a Fluid on a Plate
(from Laminar to Turbulent)
• Drag coefficient on a flat plate over
the whole range of Re is best obtained
empirically
• Very similar to the Moody’s diagram
• Completely turbulent conditions:
• Drag coefficient independent of
Re
• Depend only on the roughness
factor

26
 Example: Flow of Hot Oil over a Flat Plate
Engine oil at 40°C flows over a 5.00-m-long flat plate with a free stream velocity of
2.00 m/s. Assume that the flow is steady and incompressible. The critical Reynolds
number Recr = 5 ×105. The density and dynamic viscosity of engine oil at 40°C are
ρ=876 kg/m3 and μ=0.218 kg /m·s, respectively.

Determine the drag force acting on the plate per unit width.

27