Moduule -4

PART II Interpersonal and Team Processes

CHAPTER 8
Organizational Communication
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Define organizational communication and identify its components.
2. ldentity the characteristics of communication channel to determine the
effectiveness of the communication process.
3. Highlight different communication networks and their utilities.
4. Diagnose the barriers to effective communication and to determine strategies to
overcome these.
5. Discuss the concept of transactional analysis to improve interpersonal communication.

groups as he was reported y known to be a skipper.

An Encounterwith a Blacklisted Guest hotel
aware ofthis, Shreya informs Sethithatthe
Beceptionist Shreya is on duty at the front office of the NoW booked and asksif she could book a room in
1S TUIy
Grand palace Hotel, [Link] was not as busy evening another hotel. Sethi becomes furious andlaunches into
an

as it was expected to be. a tirade against Shreya.

A groupfrom Holland was to checkin that evening,
show. turbu- "You have my registration details and credit card,
Hweverit turned outto be a no Heavy
now you tell me there [Link] room available?" Sethi
[Link]íon of all flights: toand
encehad resuted in the man
for us00T want to talk to you, 8et me
NewDelhi. Thus,the nine rooms that were reserved
8e-now
he Dutch group were now available for sale again, Shreya immediatelypages Mary, the assistant man-
Tbat evening Ajay Sethi and his friend Tina arrive
Shreya, the reception- 8er on duty. On her arrival Shreya takes her aside and
[Link] hotel. has hap-
"Good evening, Sir, [Link] situation Now aware of what
ston uty, welcomes them: explains,to Mr Sethi that the hotel
"My name is Ajay Sethi, i Pened, Marycalmly
help you enguires Shreya. roomisbeingbookedelse
for a double deluxe S indeed fully bookedanda
hye reseriation forthis evening finds where and the hotel carisat hisdisposal
sothathe is not
09mreplies [Link] checks the arrival list,
to com nconveniencoteed further.
the [Link] Sethia registration card
pete Welcome tohe Gand Palace Hotel, Mr Sethi. Atthatmoment Wiliams the front office manag
Mayhave yourcredit card please," requests Shreya er, approachesthe deskto find out what is happeningto
PQitey MrSethi, ablacklisted [Link] being moved
eh8ves bis credit card to Shreya, However, angther hotel.
beore hreyalasksfor Sethi's signature, sheremembers Questions for Discussion
hatthe guest's name js similar to a, name on the black
dist of unwelcome vistors. She immediately checks the 1. Does this situation include any, communication
compufer and tinds that the guest in front of her is the problem? Why or why not?
isame person in Shrgya's
2. What would you do i you were
invited unsa-
h person was earlierreported to havedamaged
the hotel and had furni-0 place
vO ry elements to he had 3, How would you handlethe situation if you were
ture [Link] in the rooms that hotel
Slayedin He was also wanted by a few other Williams, thefront office manager?
 02

Introduction
friends,
Communication in its varied forms permeates all aspects of our life including family,
occurs at different levels in the organization
workplace, business, and the government. It
Communication results in exchange ofideas and
self, interpersonal, group, and organization.
deal oftime commu-
the sharing of likes and dislikes among individuals. People spend a great
both inside and outside the organization. It is the most
nicating with individuals and groups,
but it is seldom learly under-
widely dealt area in the entire field of organizational studies, the attainment of
stood. In practice, effective communication is not only the prerequisite for
modern management
organizational goals, but also one of the biggest challenges facing
conflicts
is
Poor communication probably the most frequently cited source ofinterpersonal
(Thomas and Schmidt 1976). Since we spend nearly 70% of our waking hours communicat
reasonable to conclude that a lack
ing-writing, reading, speaking, and listening-it seems
It
of effective communication is one of the main barriers to successful group performance.
of lovers' confliçts, ethnic prejudice, and war between
is attributed to be the primary cause
conflicts. These are only
nations, the generation gap, industrial disputes, and organizationalcommunication.
representative of the numerous problems attributed to ineffective
Groups cannot exist without communication which involves transfer of ideas, content,
and their meaning to all members of the group. Any idea or information can be passed on
to be complete,
only through transmission of meaning. For the process of communication
the meaning has to be understood too. A member ofa group who speaks only French will not
be fully understood by the others in the group if they do not know French. Communication,
therefore, must include both the transfer and the understanding of meaning.

Definition of Communication Commudication to

Communication is defined as a process by which people attempt to share meaning via the Iansoissiontofol

transmission of symbolic messages. Since communication is a process of transmission of Sage

message and understanding of information between two or more people, it involves at least oint
two parties-a senderand a receiver(Communication has occurred when a message is wo or oione
received-even if the received messageis diferent from what wasintended JBowditch and s d
Buono 1997).(Thus, two major communication-related problems are commúnication failure ponies
(no meaningful message exchanges hands) and miscommunication (the message received
is diferent from the one intended),/Signs of communication failure include remarks such skudying agan
as "Oh, I guesA didn't hear you say that, "No, I never got that report "He didn't have any
thing new to say" A managerrequesting a subordinate to submit a report on Wednesday, the akionc omun-

twenty-second, and the subordinate inferring it as Wednesday, the twenty-ninth, is also a

good example of miscommunication. Cahon n e q w o c laol

Functions of Communication OGhoud norourúcapa

The next question is why people need communication, especially in an organizational set
cordáade o
ting. According to Scott and Mitchell (1976), the functions of communication within groups
ca
or organizations are as follows: thecoocos5e

Control: Communication acts as a means ofcontrolling the behaviour of themembers

membersof
ofthe
organization. Every organization has a set of rules that are supposed to be followed by the co-0ndtoaho

employees, and these rules flow through the entire organizational hierarchy. managers dve
v
commnrarchy When managers e a v i o u a io oil
subordinates,they
want to control the behaviour of theirDordinates, they communicate these rulesandguide
lines through formal or informal means.
G g .& l o d v i
kooond duc

-14as
202 PART I1: INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM PROCESSES

Motivation: The managers in the

organization need to communicate,
performance to their subordinates on a day-to-day basis. They do so byinformation
informing
regarding
the sub-
ordinates about what they are
supposed to be doing and how well they are performing their
jobs. They also need to be told about areas that require improvement so that they are motivated
enough to learn more and do better.
Emotional expression: Since man is a social animal, he
for sharing his thoughts
needs to be with other human beings
and concerns. Most of us rely on the group which we belong to satisíy
this need. When members in a
group share their pain and pleasure with each other, it gives
them an outlet to express their emotions.
Communication, therefore, provides a release for the
emotional expression of feelings and the fulflment of social
Information: Information needs to be shared candidly needs
the members for an
to
among
develop and grow. The process of communication helps group members to pass organization
on the relevant
information to the people in the
organization.

onentso Components/Process of Communication

The process of communication
begins when a sender identifies the need to send a mes-
sage. He, then, formulates the message and
it. The process concludes when a receiver
places it in the intended channel to transmit
accepts the message and interprets its mean-
ing (Berlo 1960). The components in the process of
Figure 8.1. communication are described in
Ideation: Ideation involves the
persons decision to communicate and draft the nature and
content of the intended message
based on the personis reasons for
Message: The actual information that needs to be sent across to thecommunicating.
receiver.
Encoding: It involves converting an intended message into a transmittable form, such as
speech, a written message, computer code or any other form that could be sent to the receiver.
A person must be careful
during the encoding stage, or the message sent would be different
from what is intended to be sent.
Channel: Once a message has been encoded, it must be sent.
communication channels. Any medium capable of Messages are sent through
tion channel, transmitting message is a communica-
a

including mail system, phones lines, and computers. The effectiveness of the
communication channel will depend upon choosing the appropriate channel and
its integrity. For preserving
example, writing a letter but forgetting to mail it halts the communication
process.
Decoding: The fourth step is the process by which receiver interprets
a
to derive
meaning from it, for effective communication depends. upon the receivermessage
a

as much as on
sender. Whether or not the
meaning ofa message remains the same, once it has been decoded,
it has been received.
The perceptual process influences
the decoding process. For a message to be noticed
a receiver, for
example, it must be loud enough, bright enough or different enough to get theby
receiver's attention.
Feedback: Feedback is the process of
reassuring that the message has reached the intended
person in the right manner. The message received should be the same as that was
to be sent. intended

Feedback

Figure 8.1 IdeafMessageEncodingChanneDecodingrece by

Process of
sender
Communication receiver
 4 PAR

CHAPTER 8: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

One's total success in the communication process depends on various skills such as
speaking, listening, reading, and reasoning. We know that our attitudes influence our
[Link] hold predisposed ideas, on numerous topics, and our communication
is
affected by these attitudes. Further, we are restricted in our communication by the
extent of our knowledge on that particular topic. We cannot communicate what we do
not know, and should our knowledge be too extensive, it is possible that our readers wl
not understand the message. [Link] amount of knowledge the source holds about
the subject will affect the
message that is transferred. Finally, just as attitudes intluence
communication so does our position in the socio-cultural system in which we exist. Our
beliefs and values, all parts of our culture, act and influence us
in the communication
process.

Methods of Communication
Individuals in organizations can communicate in a number of
nication has its definite ways. Every process of commu-
advantages in organizations and
plays a significant role. The different
way's in which people can communicate in
Oral and written organizations are given here.
communication: Oral communication
immediate feedback, seeking clarifications, if any, to provide provides opportunities and for
to' answer questions.
It has the advantage of
additional information
of oral communication is the absence of a being personal
and faster. One disadvantage
record of what was discussed. A formal
comprises of both written and oral words. The written meeting
and the deliberations of the component is the written agenda
meeting are in spoken words. Written
more
impersonal, but it provides the receiver with more [Link] is
It is more time
consuming when compared to oral communication and also does not
feedback. facilitate immediate
Non-verbal communication: The
components of communication, which are not expressed
through written or spoken words, are included under the domain of non-verbal commu-
nication. It includes body movement, facial
receiver and the sender. Apart from expression, and physical distance between the
this, environmental
quality furniture, convey a lot about the status of the factors,
such as a spacious office with
person. Body language is an important
back-up for verbal communication, but sometimes incompatibility between the verbal and
the non-verbal
components of communication creates confusion.
Use of technology: The
application of new technology for the communication of information
indudes computerized information processing systems, new forms of telecommunication sys-
tems and a combination of
the two. The advancements in technology have introduced differ
ent methods of communication such as
voice e-mailing, faxing, home banking,
mails, and text messaging, etc. The main videoconferencing,
challenge for the future is to integrate the vari
ous
technologis and to ensure that the social structures
and power
tions are congruent relationships in organiza
with the new electronic office systems. The drawbacks
are
perceived the form of information overload, loss of records in the of new technology
in
the dehumanizing
impact of paperless office, and
the dissemination of new ideaselectronic
and
equipments. Howéve, new technology will help in
practices, and in the process organizations will
become
knowledge-based organizations.
Communication Channels
Selecting a communication channel to transmit a timely, accurate, and
able message is very important. completely understand-
People are channels who use speech, sight,
to communicate with each other. and body motions
Mechanical channels go beyond
the capabilities
body include newsletters, magazines, telephones, radio, television, and of the human
and
Most people háve personal
preferences among the various communication computers.
available. Some believe that face-to-face communication channels
is best whenever
rely almost entirely on memos. More and more people use possible. Others
computer channels às a first choice.
203204 PART I1: INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM PROCESSES

Cherocterstics of In
reality, there is no single best communication channel. The
Communicahoneannes depend upon the following characteristics: effectiveness of channel will
a

CRgRael copaciy his Channel capacity: This refers to the

amount of information that a
neters to the omoun without significant distortion. A TV channel can transmit
oltntomaton tedt o broadcast has greater channel
Capacity is important when time is limited. capacity than a memo.
Chonnek coan trepsmit Channel modifiability: This is the
withou stgoitcant in progress. degree to which transmission can be changed while
Pidion Change might involve content or speed. For example,
lower through TV than it is for a live modifiability is much
lecture from a professor, because
onnemociabili stop a TV show to ask questions. A TV lecture students cannot
S S he degree to presented using a video recorder can
whGh [Link] greatly enhance modifiability if students can replay a
on the screen. passage or freeze an important frame
Progrex Channel duplication:
Duplication involves the use of sub-channels to repeat or elaborate
SOnerdUIon on a
message. A speaker making a presentation to a group of people may usea
Dopcatcnaroes the place key terms on a screen while discussing the terms in more detail. TV projector to
sual channels provide great opportunity for duplication; therefore, they canand other audiovi-
pictorial, and audio messages all at the same time. The need for provide written,
depends upon its complexity and importance-the duplication of the message
the greater the need for greater the complexity and importance,
duplication.
Channel speed: The speed at which a message needs to be sent is often
2 a.m. and you notice that the house across the street is on important. If ie's
a letter to inform the
fire, you probably will not send
owner that the house is on fire. if you want to send birth-
day greetings to your neighbour, you will not rush overHowever,
in the middle of the
happy birthday" through the bedroom window. In night and yell
for safety devices at work must have organizations, communication channels
great speed, as must any message for which significant
delay could be costly.
Channel feedback: Some channels allow for
feedback and thus two-way communication.
A telephone, for
example, allows two-way communication. Feedback is not essential if it is
a
simple piece of information. The time and temperature announcement only
channel or phone calls is just provided by your TV
to the
one-way communication and, therefore, people don't need to talk
speaker; police emergency lines, however, can't be answered by "Leave
back to you when we return. a
message, well get
Feedback is important when we need to know whether the
distorted during the communication message was received, lost or
process.
Channel appropriatenes: This refers to
using the channel appropriately
the demands of the
situation. For example, informing someone about an depending upon
a letter emergency through
may not be appropriate because of time constraints; however, communication vla
telephone would ensure that the message is communicated faster.

Communication Networks
The communication between
groups or people is termed as a linkage. A communiation network
is a series of interconnected
linkages. Together, these linkages connect individuals or groups in
the communication process. If the
message needs to be conveyed from the top to the lowest level
it goes through many persons in between. Direct communication between the top and loweat
level would probably have been more accurate and more
efficient, because it would eliminate the
opportunity for the message to be lost or distorted as it passes through each linkage. Communl
cation networks can be classified into
and informal communication networks.
two broad categories-formal communication networka

Formal Communication Networks

Because there is no one single best network, most organizations use a
the basis of the flow of variety of networks. On
lows (Figure 8.2): They
infgrmation, formal communication networks can be described as
fol
can send vertical (boss to subordinate), horizontal (subordinate to sub
ordinate) and diagonal flows of information (cutting across the boundaries) as defined here.
 CHAPTER 8: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 20

Vertical communication: Communication can flow downward, upward or in both

directions. It cuts across
organization levels and may allow feedback. Vertical communica Net
works
tion represents the transfer of communication between individuals in a bos-subordinate Venical comim.
relationship. For example, when a manager gives a deadline for completing a project to his
subordinates. bercommunicain
con lov dovawa
Horizontal communication:This kind of communication represents the flow of infor- Uowardlo ooh
mationbetween individuals or groups that occupy positions at the same hierarchal level.
A discussion between a
reciior
production manager and the HR manager about the opzonfg golgae
personnel for the shop floor is an example of horizontal communication. requirement
for
1on hsKindiog
Diagonal communication: It is a third type of communication network in an
in which the information flows across organization he 1owo ptorle
across hierarchies and boundaries. The
both vertical and horizontal components as well as
diagonal communication network usually does not
appear on the organizational chart, but a substantial number of
in large diagonal contacts are found Dosions
organizations (Wickesberg 1968). Diagonal communication is often hindered by the
existence of in-group languages and by differences in
work-group goals. Diogorieo
Types of formal communication networks Managers can choose from
ferent types of networks when among dif- OUellgenejgen
If they adhere to the cdassicál
creating a communication
system within their organization. A

management theory, for example, they may design very rigid

communication networks in which employees are
their immediate supervisors. Such a discouraged from talking to anyone except
system enables supervisors to maintain control over sub- icol onesyontoo
ordinates and to remain highly informed about various activities in
the department. Supervi- eponieus
sors in more
open systems, such as those found in flexibly-designed
to design highly open and organizations, are likely
flexible communication systems.

Vertical communication Horizontal communication

JL
Diagonal communication

Figure 8.2
Formal Communication
Networks
206 PART I1: INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM PROCESSES

Otherypes of Formal Diferent networks have diferent characteristics. In some, infornmation flows quickly, In
some, information flow is channelled to the right place at the right time. In other networks,
CommunIcation
the accuracy of information is distorted in transmision. Some common formal communica-
Newprks tion networks are (Figure 8.3) explained here.
Choinhisis more
ofer ue yerically 1. The chain network is-the simplest of networks. Although it can be used as a horizon-
Tenewos Two tal communication network-for example, interdepartmental communication-it is
tegda sousmember more often
ara postionedleithera used vertically, In the vertical configuration, the person with the greatest
power is usually located at the top of the chain. Although the chain allows the possibil-
hetoporqtha
botiom of
oS an Yered ity feedback, many linkages can exist between a sender and the receiver, which make
Even when they are accurate, chain networks tend to be slow and
distortions likely.
Grqle This hework
scacmembarto subject information
to overload. Such a network usually produces relatively slow deci-
icce drecl sions, and the quality of these decisions depends highly on the leader of the network
iWO ohermenmbars 2. The "Y" network is a modification of the chain network. Two equal status members
neworkhos are positioned either at the top or at the bottom as in an inverted Y. Like the chain, the

Y networks allow feedback in relatively ineficient

a manner. The Y is not slow
as
the chain network and is not subject to as much distortion, because fewer linkages are
as

required. However, the improvement is minimal. Decision quality is still dependent

on the leader. The Y introduces a measure of centralization with one member having
direct access to the other three members. This results in considerable information
overload for the person in the centre.
3. The circle network allows each member to communicate directly with two other mem-
bers. This improves decision quality and speed marginally over the Y and star net-
works because of greater information exchange. The feedback process is not smooth
and distortions tend to be undesirably high. There tends to be problems of informa-
tion overload for all the members.
4. The
whecd network has the greatest amount ofcentralization ofall the networks. The per
son inthecentreofthe wheel communicate
and their only
can directly with alother network members
is direct communication contact. Centralization speeds thecommunica
tion process, especially in decision making. Information overload can be substantial for
the person in the centre of the wheel, although it's not usually a problem for the other
munic members of the network. Dependence on the leader for decision quality is high.
CoroledY The star communication network, which allows members to communicate directly
with each other, is the best network in some ways. It tends to produce high-quality
decisions and has relatively fewer distortions. Group effectiveness is less dependent
on the leader than in most other networks, and information overload is usually not
gg
a severe problem. One disadvantage of the star network is that it tends to be as slow
as the chain for both information exchange and decision
making because so much
communication tendsto occur. The star network is also the least centralized of all of
the networks. This is not a problem unless one person (the boss) wants to maintaln
constant control over the others in the network.

ogonizgtign
negemar Informal Communication Networks
gderiogep The informal communication networks that exist in organizations are created by employeos
secd ot ning They emerge through natural and spontaneous human interaction-they follow around water
4self 3o ong own coolers, tea session, lunchrooms, and whenever people get together in groups. They are not
moinia easy to control, transmit information rapidly, and often carry rumours. Some examples o
alaistang informal communication networks in organizations are described here.
ensubopipaies ond Grapevine: It is an informal channel of communication not controlled by the management
Oledgeagages
and serves as a foundation for all the gossip and rumours in the organization. Many employ
c a move royndn
otie Premisesohd ces in the organization view it as more effective and credible when compared to the formal
ngrmalY chgt with management dhannels (Modic 1989). It has also been found that about 80% ofthe grapevineat
peiple. the workplace is related to work and 80% of it is generally true (Simmons 1985). Grapevines
 CHAPTER 8: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATIONI
ON 2
SO
Chain Circle

Star

Wheel

Figure 8.3
Common Formal
Communication
Networks
generally, arepresent in organizations when there is ambiguity in situations and
confused. A good manager will always have access to the rumours employees feel
floating in the organization
through loyal subordinates. After knowing these rumours, the manager can pass on the news
that will improve
relationships or act to eliminate gossip that might be harmful to organiza-
tional performance (Kiechel 1985).
Social gatherings: Organizations need to create
level away from the formal culture of the
opportunities for employees to meet at a social
to people to pass on their
organization. Social gatherings provide a platform
observations, grievances, and achievements to their colleagues and
superiors at an informal level. It can be in the form of company picnics, luncheons, weekend
parties, and so on.
Management by wandering around: Instead of limiting themselves to their own offices and
maintaining an official distance from their subordinates and colleagues, managers can move
around in the office premises and informally chat with
people. This will help serve two pur-
poses: one, the employees will shed their inhibitions with the superiors and feel free with
them; and secondly, the manager will have more information available to him which other-
wise would never have reached him. The informally communication with
management by wandering around (Peters and Waterman 1982).
employees is called
208 PART I1: INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM PROCESSES

wwwwM

AND IN OUR CASE, THE SINGLE

FaryRni
SuccCESS FACTOR HAS BEEN THE MOST IMPORTANT
AT THE RIGHT PLACE AND AT RIGHT RUMOUR,
THE RIGHT TIME!

Courtesy Prriya Raj. Reproduced with

permission.

Barriers to Communication
Communication, though intended to be smooth and effective, is not
times tends to become ineffective. always flawless and some-
erca Ineffective communication may be attributed to different
types of human or technical barriers. The
tht major barriers can be classified into four categories:
1. Intrapersonal factors
2. Interpersonal factors
3. Organizational factors
4. Technological factors
poco

2rogpeS
Intrapersonal Factors
(Intrapersonal
as barrier in
factors refer to the elements within the individual's personality which act
a
receiving, analysing, and interpreting the information that is available.
Prpuotaoi There different intrapersonal bárriers in an
are
individual's personality. Some of these are
as follows:
Selective perception: The way in which we
which our thoughts aboufit are converted in the form ofsubject
perceive a or an event affects the
way in
have a tendency to see and hear what meaningful communication. People
they are emotionally prepared to see and hear. They
seek out favourable messages and
ignore unpleasant
ones.
 CHAPTER 8: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 0

Individual diferences in communication skills: People also differ in their ability to develop
and apply basic communication skill. Some people are capable of expressing themselves, but
they cannot write clear and concise messages. Some are effective listeners but
Such dificulties are poor speakers.
potential barriers to éfective communication.
Emotions: The emotional state of the
person at the time of sending or receiving the message
has aprofound impact on its effectiveness.
Frameof reference: As has been discussed in the chapter on perception, people often
the same perceve
thing differently but assume thát other people perceive it the same way they
When
communicators use different frames of reference, they cannot achieve common under-ao.
standing in their communication.)
Preconceived ideas: The interpretation or reception of the message is influenced the
receivers preconceived opinions about the content of the by
receiver tends to make a message. When this happens, the
snap judgement about what is being said.
preted from the receiver's point of view, with little Since the message is inter-
or no consideration of
point, the intended meaning of the the senders view-
message may be completely lost.
pterparsond commb
Interpersonal Factors lcoton Baui0
Interpersonal factors play an important role when two
other in the individuals communicate with each eosytede
organizational setting. Some of the interpersonal
effective communication factors which act as a
are given here: barrier to
Climate: Within an organizational context, the
ordinate largely derives from the relationship between the superior and sub-
treatment each receives from
dckotsu
in which this the other and from the way
reciprocal behaviour is interpreted. The engSup Pote
the cimate of an combination of attitudes determines
flow of interpersonal relationship. The lack of climate can easily lead toa ppucaiion
communication, games to manipulate information, restricted
antagonism. and widespread distrust and
Trust: The communication process is a transaction eperce
information is meant to have a between sender and receiver. Transfer of ersic
such relationships. Distrust andreciprocal effect on both. Trust is a major characteristic
suspicion of
and subordinate can serve all
ion sou
defensiveness and decrease thebetween superior
a
to increase
frequency of open expression, thereby making only
communication ineffective.
Credibility: It refers to the CommUTGeilon
Johnson(1972) Credibility isperceived characteristics of an
composed of the following sixinformation
source.
distinct elements:
According to
1. eteig icilae
Honesty or general trustworthiness eepioaijch
2.
Expertise or competence
3.
Dynamism or enthusiasm terperenu sejsi
4.
Objectiity or open-mindedness
5. Intention
0DRatienodk
6. General reputation ecouseiney
These are not
necessarily possessed
by given
a source but are attributed to that source by
individual receivers. Credibility of a source isactually determined by the receiver.
Sender-receiver similarity: The accuracy of communication between two gopie eve eens
tors is
directly related to the extent to which communica
degree of similarity between communicators intheyterms
perceive themselves to be similar. The
of
oece ondUn
characteristics such as age, sex, Witc they dgaotren
intelligence, and socioeconomic status, as well as common
race,
attitudes, interests, values
and abilities, influences the ease and
openness of their communication. Similar Demgnieioroblen
nicators are more willing to commu-
accept the viewpoints of one another and to Words hoye duilen
agreement. express common
07eaningS tor direreu
Interpersonal sensitivity: Some people have the
theircommunication goals because they lack necessary
skills but are unable to achieve
though communicated in an appropriate manner,interpersonal sensitivity. Their messages,
may not be able to motivate the receivers undersidnding
comuuniCaTon
210 PART II: INTERPERSONAL AND TEAM PROCESSES

to respond postively to them. Insensitive individuals may use language that is ofensive to
others or that may be indifferent to the needs and feelings of other people.
Selective listening: People have a tendency to hear what they want to hear and tune out what
they do not want to hear. We are more receptive to messages that satisfy our needs or coincide
with our beliefs, And we tend to deny, reject or distort
messages that are threatening or in
conflict with our éxisting beliefs (Larwood and Whittaker 1977). People become defensive
when they are criticized by others as it is a threat to their
ego.
Semantic problem: Words have different meanings for different people. Some problems
in understanding
communication occur because the words used by the sender are under-
stood by the receiver in a different manner due to semantic
the sender uses highly abstract or technical terms or when he
problems. This happens when
speaks a language which is not
understood by the receiver.

Organizational Factors
Organizational factors are the elements within the organizational setting that either facilitate
barriers that may prevent the communication
or act as
process from running smoothly. Some
of these organizational factors which act as communication barriers
are discussed here.
ereoraiona Status: The persons status in an organization depends largely upon the prestige associated
with the position occupied. The
impact of status on effective communication is highly felt.
It has been found that:
People generally prefer to direct their communication to individuals with higher sta-
tusin the organization.
People with high status generally communicate more with one another than they do
with people of lower status in the organization.
The wider the status diference, the greater the likelihood that information will flow
from higher to lower status rather than vice versa.
gopgz0iona
A person with a high status in the
organization generally dominates in a conversation
with a person of lower status.
A person with low status often
attempts to gain the favour af those with high status,
guperorongonicg by displaying respect, offering praise, and agreeing with their views.
Grouresei Hierarchical transmission: As organizations grow, hierarchies evolve to facilitate the
accomplishment of broadened activities and to ease communication. Information must be
systematically channellized to all parts of an organization. Although the transfer of informa-
tion through an organizational chain of command (hierarchical fans) is necessary, it does
give rise to numerous communication difficulties. For example, the more levels a message
must pass through, the
longer it takes to reach its destination and less likely it is to be accurate
Group size: Interpersonal communication becomes increasingly difficult as the size of the
work group increases.
ploars
This occurs in part because the number of possible communication
channels between individual members increases rapidly when group size increases. Fora
group of five people there are 5(5-1)/2, or 10, channels of communication possible. As the
number of individuals increase, the number of channels also increases.
Spatial constraints: The kind of task or job a person is engaged in will influence his
munication with others. The shorter the distance between two employees, the greatercom
wll
be their frequency of interaction and less likely that
they will encounter problems of mutual
coordination due to miscommunication.

Technological Factors
Technological factors are the elements in the medium, content or the quantity of informatlon
that has to be passed on for
[Link] to take place. The following includes
some of the
technological factors that act as barriers to effective communication:
 CHAPTER 8: N
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION 2

extent to
communication accuracy is the Tachnological Barie
Language meaning: A major determinant of
and
is a system
to the same word. Since language longuoge andme
which communicators assign similar meanings
of symbols, words themselves have no meaning. They are simply labels. The meaning a per-
determinant
social background,
Son attaches to a
message is uniquely determined by individual needs, myhicatioh ac
and so on. Curacyishextep to
For some words, dictionaries give so many different meanings, the word that the
as Which copmuncitors
sender refers to may be different from the word the receiver perceives. There are some words dssign similaremcaning
which are spelt in the same way but have diferent meanings: for example,live (verb) and live ne some wore
(adjective); wind (verb) and wind (noun). Some words are pronounced the same way but are Non verbocues: hese
spelt diferently: for example to, two, and too; here and hear. non-verbod SinuilarB
Non-verbal cues: When people speak, their words are usually accompanied by a variety of Slep uessgestiho
meaningfu mon=verbal cues, such as physical postures, gestures, facial expression, body,
touch, and visual behaviour. These non-verbal stimuli are silent messages that may com- dccUrgte tgnste
municate the inaccurate transfer of meaning: for example, the degree of eye contact between eng
communicators may indicate interest,
movements (shifts in position, hand
liking, involvement or aggression. Similarly, body
of relaxation.
gesture, nods) may convey eagerness, anger or a feeling
In order to understand
of their
people better, we need to pay attention to all three components
communication, that is, their body language, words, and tone of 0ggressO
its enormous voice. Because of Gharinelenedivenes
impact, body language is very important. A manager will be to commu-
nicate much more
effectively if he is conscious of his own body language,able and he will be
Wiren endels
able increase his understanding of others if he learns to interpret
to merorepda dno
Research studies (Mehrabian 1972) indicate that the three their body language. dhogiamsor compe
are
expressed the manner shown in Table 8.1.
in components of communication ewspapershoy
The importance of
non-verbal communication in undopemos;
edged by theorists and practitioners who assert that themanagement been
has acknowl-
non-verbal messages is an complex interplay of verbal and
skilful at observing
integral part of the management process. Managers must be
must be aware of the
and responding to the non-verbal messages of subordinates, and they
impact of their non-verbal behaviour on the subordinates ynep
process of communication. Box 8.1 provides some of the during the
interpretations of non-verbal torrmeio
behaviours. dtierp
In the majority of cases, verbal and non-verbal cues communicate the same proce
that is, they message,
complement each other. However, non-verbal stimuli may contradict and even
negate the intended meaning of a verbal message. For example, a statement "That's
that's just great" said in reaction to an great,
unfavourable outcome is almost always
negative. general, when non-verbal cues are
In perceived as

message, reliance is incongruent with an

accompanying verbal
placed primarily upon the non-verbal part of the total
Channel effectiveness: Written channels
(memoranda, charts,
communication.
papers) have been found to
be most effective for diagrams or
company news-
Written communication transmitting lengthy and detailed material.
provides the reader with an
opportunity to achieve
at his own rate and
by his own method. Storage and retrieval is easy in case ofunderstanding
munication. written com-
Oral channels (face-to-face,
ate for cotmmunication that
telephone, lecture, and conference) are especially appropri-
requires translation and elaboration in order to be understood
by the recipient with varying orientation and
communicated orally. language skills. Feelings and ideas are better

Table 8.1 Components of Oral Communication

Communicotion ComponentercentageExpressed
Gestures/expressions 55
Tone of the voice
38
Words 7
Total communication 100
912PART I: INTERPERSONAL ANDTEAM PROCESSES

ROXB1 INTERPRETATION OFNON-VERBAL BEHAVIOURS

Non verbalCues ndicates the Following
king cown mbarrassment
d
mness opdofenon
Overingieyes With hond Avoidonce
SOarkthg eves EXCilement
Sddness
denco eyes mazement
egergsecoy
B
toroctiiy
cY lumpedonthe chatnthesateof
drawolk

nginekeca eg or embarrassne
Made no
ncagning
Neyot ness

degs,e

es
Pair Qiecio
estlessnessOr gier

pinghe

MADge 96 NewDelb prentoe Hallofao

Information overload: There is, clearly, alimit to the amount of information an individual can
process and absorb at a given time. It has been observed that executives can absorb
1/100 to 1/1000 of the available information relevant to them. only
a product of the
Information overload is partly
technological and scientific knowledge explosion of our times. Information
overload occurs when the volume of
information exceeds the avarying
Along with this information-processing capacity, jobs also haveperson' s capacity to process it.
information over-
load, that is, the amount of information to be
What happens when
processed per unit time (Alesandrini 1993).
individuals
There is a tendency to sort out,
have more information than
they can sort out and use?
is that the information is lost,
ignore or
forget the information. Whatsoever, the final result
resulting in the ineffectiveness of the communication process.
Sometimes, overload also results in creating
ultimately leading to health issues. anxiety and frustration for the communicator,

Overcoming the Barriers to Communication

The advance
to minimize the
knowledge of the barriers to communication makes it possible to take actions
impact ef these barriers and make the process of communication effective in
organizations. Some of the strategies that could be used
the effect of these barriers by managers in organizations to reduce
and make the process of communication effective are as follows:
 CHAPTER 8: ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION213

Set the goals of communication in advance: Before going ahead with the process of
communication, the communicator should know what he wants to achieve through this.
Is it to control the behaviour of others, to motivate them or to give them some intorma-
tion? Depending on the goal, the mode of communication would vary.
Use proper language: The sender of the message should ensure that the language used for
dissminating the information is easy to understand and does not involve the use of jargons
or words that are beyond the comprehension of the receivér.
Improve senders credibility: The person sending the message across should be see as a
credible person. He should be an expert in the area, and his words should match with his
actions. Most people fail in this credibility test because they are not able to live up to the
expectations of the receivers.
Encourage feedback: Any process of communication is incomplete without feedback. The
sender can be sure of the authenticity of his message only if it has been received by the
receiver as it was
intended.
Two-way communication and sensitivity to non-verbal messages
can improve the feedback process.
Develop a trusting climate: he culture of the organization should promote trust. The process
ofcommunication inefective
is if the person sending a message is not sure that it
confidential
will remain confidential.
Select an appropriate channel: An appropriate channel will help to make the process of
communication effective. Care has to be taken to select the right channel. Level (1972) has
proposed the following guidelines for selecting the right channel:
Oral communication would be appropriate only for discusing interpersonal problems
and problems related to workperformance
Written communication is desirable in situations where information is of a general
nature and requires future action.
Oral communication followed by written communication is suitable in all kinds
of situations, especially the ones requiring immediate action and job-related
instructions.
Written communication followed by oral communication is not a frequently used
method of communication.
Avoid evaluative judgement: Any judgement prior to receiving the message is not desirable.
The receiver should be open to communication without any precónceived ideas and bias. He
should try to create a climate that fosters acceptance and understanding.
Listen to the entire message: A message has two components-content and feeling.
A receiver should try to fully receive the message rather than in parts. Many a times, the
feling associated with the message is more important than the content and a good manager
takes note osit. The feling is usually communicated by non-verbal means. All of these must
be observed in listening for the total meaning of the message.
Provide appropriate feedback: The receiver should provide appropriate feedback to the
sender about the message that he has received. Appropriate feedback will bring about con-
structiye dialogue without creating a defensive environment and will help attain a common
communication ground.

Persuasive Communication: From

Understanding to Acceptance
This chapter has mainly focused on how to get people to receive and understand messages.
However, we usually want others to accept our information, not just understand it. People
understand your message when they perceive the same meaning that you intended. They
accept your message when it becomes part of their beliefsystem and changes their opinions
and behaviours. The elements of persuasive communication include characteristics of the com-
municator, message content, communication medium, and the audience being persuaded.