REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

 Explain MTP and state its significance? Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)

Ans: It is defined as intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy before full term. MTP
was legalised by Government of India in 1971 under strict conditions to avoid misuse. MTP is done
in the following situations:
(i) Failure of contraceptive used during coitus.
(ii) When continued pregnancy is harmful or fatal to either mother or foetus or both.
(iii) Rape cases.

It is safe during first trimester, i.e., up to 12 weeks of pregnancy. Government of India has imposed
strict conditions for MTP because it is often misused for sex determination and illegal abortions of
female fetuses. Due to female feticides, male and female sex ratio may get disturbed, raising many
ethical, religious and social issues. The grounds for such termination of pregnancies are:
(i) The continuation of the pregnancy would involve a risk to the life of the pregnant woman or of
grave injury physical or mental health; or
(ii) There is a substantial risk that of the child were born, it would suffer from such physical or
mental abnormalities as to be seriously handicapped.

 What are contraceptives? List any four characteristics of an ideal contraceptives?

Ans: Contraceptive methods are the birth control measure that is taken to prevent unwanted
pregnancies and to maintain population stabilization. Some commonly used contraceptive devices
are- condoms, IUDs (Intrauterine devices), diaphragms, implants, etc. The most important step to
control population growth is to motivate smaller families by using various contraceptive methods.
An ideal contraceptive should be:
(i) Easily available
(ii) user-friendly
(iii) Effective and reversible with no or least side-effects
(iv) Non-interfering with the sexual drive/desire and/or the sexual act of the user.

Methods of Birth Control

The contraceptive methods are divided into following categories:
(i) Natural/traditional methods (ii) Barrier methods
(iii) Intra uterine devices (IUDs) (iv) Oral contraceptives
(v) Injections and implants (vi) Surgical methods.

(i) Natural methods

These are natural methods that work on the principle of avoiding the meeting of ovum and
sperm.
(a) Periodic abstinence is a method in which a couple avoids or abstains from coitus from
day 10-17 of the menstrual cycle, when ovulation is expected to occur.
(b) Coitus interruptus or withdrawal is a method in which male partner withdraws his penis
from the vagina just before ejaculation, so as to avoid insemination.
(c) Lactational amenorrhea is based on the principle that during the period of lactation
after parturition, ovulation does not occur.
(ii) Barrier methods
These methods prevent the contact of sperm and ovum with the help of barriers. Such methods
are available for both males and females.
(a) Condoms are barriers made of thin rubber/latex sheath used to cover the penis in the
male or vagina and cervix in females. It prevents the deposition of ejaculated semen
into the vagina of the female.
(b) Diaphragms, cervical caps and vaults are the barriers made of rubber that are inserted
into the female reproductive tract to cover the cervix during coitus. They prevent the
entry of sperms through cervix. They are reusable.
(c) Spermicidal creams, jellies and foams are used along with these barriers to increase
their contraceptive efficiency.

(iii) Intra Uterine Devices (IUDs)

These devices are inserted by doctors in the uterus through vagina.
There are three types of IUDs available:
(a) Non-medicated IUDs: These increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus, e.g.,
Lippes loop.
(b) Copper releasing IUDs: Along with phagocytosis of sperms, the copper ions released
suppress sperm motility and fertilizing capacity of sperms, e.g., CuT, Cu 7, Multiload 375.
(c) Hormone releasing IUDs: These make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and the
cervix hostile to sperms, e.g., Progestasert, LNG-20.

(iv) Oral contraceptive

 This involves uptake of hormonal preparations of either progestogens or progestogen-
estrogen combinations in the form of pills by females.
 They inhibit ovulation and implantation as well as alter the quality of cervical mucus to
prevent entry of sperms.
 Pills are to be taken for period of 21 days starting within first five days of menstrual cycle.
After gap of 7 days, to be repeated in same pattern.
 'Saheli', an oral contraceptive for females containing a non-steroidal preparation was
developed by scientists at Central Drug Research Institute (CDRI) in Lucknow. It is a once a
week pill.
 Pills have high contraceptive value and few side effects.

(v) Injections and implants

 Progestogens or progestogen-estrogen combination can also be used by females as injections
or implants under the skin.
 Their mode of action is similar to that of pills but their effective periods are longer.

(vi) Surgical methods (Sterilisation)

 These are terminal and permanent methods which block the transport of gametes, thereby
preventing conception effectively.
  In males, a small part of the vas deferens is removed and tied up through a small incision on
the scrotum. This is called vasectomy.
 In females, a small part of the fallopian tube is removed and tied up through a small incision
in the abdomen or vagina. This is called tubectomy.

 What are STDs, how are these diseases spread. Give examples of STDs
Ans: Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
 Infections or diseases that are transmitted through sexual intercourse are collectively called
sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) or venereal diseases (VD) or reproductive tract
infections (RTI).
 STDs are caused by bacteria (syphilis, Gonorrhoea), virus (AIDS, hepatitis B, genital herpes,
genital warts), protozoans, nematodes, ectoparasites (trichomoniasis, chlamydiasis) and
fungi.
 Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain and swellings in the genital region.
 Complications due to chronic STDs: Pelvic inflammatory diseases (PID), abortions, still
births, ectopic pregnancies, infertility, or even cancer of the reproductive tract.
 Early symptoms: Itching, fluid discharge, slight pain and swellings in the genital region.
 Transmission of hepatitis-B and HIV also occurs by the following ways
(i) Sharing of injection needles or surgical instruments with infected persons;
(ii) Transfusion of infected blood
(iii) Transfer from infected mother to the foetus through placenta.

 By following simple principles, STDs can be prevented.

(i) Avoid sex with unknown partners/multiple partners.
(ii) Always use condoms during coitus.
(iii) Contact a qualified doctor for any doubt, in early stage of infection.

 Define infertility. State any two reasons responsible for the cause of infertility.
Ans: Inability to conceive or produce children inspite of unprotected sexual co-habitation is
called infertility. Infertility can be due to following reasons:
(i) Infertility in males can be due to low sperm count, blockage of vasa deferentia and vasa
efferentia affecting sperm transport, hormonal deficiency, impotency (inability to erect
and penetrate penis into vagina of female) and presence of anti-sperm antibodies in
semen.
(ii) Infertility in females can be due to ovulation disorders, abnormality in uterus, blockage
or damage to Fallopian tubes, chronic endometritis, fibroid in uterus, etc

 Explain IVF-ET?
Ans: Two principle procedures adopted for test tube baby programme are ZIFT (Zygote Intra
Fallopian Transfer) and IUT (Intra Uterine Transfer). In this procedure, fusion of ovum and sperm
is done outside the body of woman, in the laboratory to form a zygote. The zygote is then allowed
to divide forming 8 blastomeres and is transferred into the Fallopian tube (ZIFT - Zygote Intra
Fallopian Transfer). If the embryo is with more than 8 blastomeres it is transferred into the uterus
(IUT - Intra Uterine Transfer) to complete its further development
Thus, this is in vitro fertilisation (IVF - fertilisation outside the body in almost similar conditions
as that in the body) followed by embryo transfer (ET)
 Significance of Reproductive Health in Society

1. Ensures Healthy Population Growth

o Promotes responsible family planning and prevents overpopulation.
o Helps in maintaining a balance between population size and available resources.
2. Reduces Maternal and Infant Mortality
o Access to proper healthcare during pregnancy and childbirth lowers risks to mothers and
infants.
o Promotes safe delivery practices and neonatal care.
3. Prevention and Control of Diseases
o Spreads awareness about sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV/AIDS.
o Encourages safe practices that protect individuals and the community from communicable
diseases.
4. Improves Quality of Life
o Enables couples to make informed decisions about the number and spacing of children.
o Enhances physical, emotional, and social well-being.
5. Empowerment of Women
o Educates women about their reproductive rights.
o Reduces gender inequality by giving women control over their reproductive choices.
6. Economic Benefits
o Healthy individuals contribute more effectively to the workforce.
o Reduces healthcare costs by preventing diseases and complications related to poor
reproductive health.
7. Prevention of Social Problems
o Reduces child marriages, teenage pregnancies, and exploitation.
o Promotes awareness about consent, relationships, and responsibilities.
8. Promotes Gender Equality and Awareness
o Informs both men and women about shared responsibility in reproductive decisions.
o Encourages respect and equality in relationships.

 Short note on Amniocentesis?

Amniocentesis is a test that diagnoses certain congenital disorders and genetic conditions in a fetus
before birth. During amniocentesis, your healthcare provider uses a thin needle to remove a small
amount of amniotic fluid from the amniotic sac. This fluid sample is sent to a lab for testing

Amniocentesis can be done for a number of reasons:

Genetic testing. Genetic amniocentesis involves taking a sample of amniotic fluid and testing the
DNA from the cells for diagnosis of certain conditions, such as Down syndrome. This might follow
another screening test that showed a high risk of the condition.

Diagnosis of fetal infection. Occasionally, amniocentesis is used to look for infection or other illness
in the baby.

Treatment. Amniocentesis might be done to drain amniotic fluid from the uterus if too much has
built up — a condition called polyhydramnios.
 Fetal lung testing. If delivery is planned sooner than 39 weeks, amniotic fluid might be tested to
help find out whether a baby's lungs are mature enough for birth. This is rarely done

 Is sex education necessary in schools ? Why

Answer :
Sex education is very important in schools as it provides the youngsters correct knowledge
about various aspects of reproductive health like: reproductive organs, adolescence and related
changes, safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), etc. This
would not just help them lead a normal healthy life, but also protect them from acquiring STDs
and stay protected from sex abuse and sex-related crimes. The right information would
discourage children from believing in myths and having misconceptions about sex-related
aspects. This would help create a sexually conscious and healthy society

 What are the suggestive reasons of population explosion?

The human population is increasing day by day. Population explosion refers the sudden and
rapid rise in the size of the population, especially human population. The reason for population
explosion include;
(a) Decreased death rate and improved life-expectancy due to better medical facilities.
(b) Increased birth rate and decreased infant mortality rate.

 Methods of Assisted Reproductive Technology

Definition : “Assisted reproductive technology is a technology used to attain pregnancy through
the usage of procedures such as in vitro fertilization, artificial insemination and surrogacy”.
Some commonly used methods of ART include
1. In vitro fertilization (IVF) – one of the most common forms of ART is IVF. Here fertilization
occurs outside the body.
2. Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) – It involves the transfer of sperms and eggs into the
fallopian tube of a woman where fertilization takes place.
3. Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT) – also known as tubal embryo transfer is somewhat similar
to IVF wherein fertilization takes place outside the body. The young embryo is then inserted into
the fallopian tube and not the uterus.
4. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) – this technique is usually used for couples where the
male is infertile. Sometimes it is also used for those with failed IVF attempts or even for older
couples. Here the principle that is followed is that a single sperm is introduced into a mature
egg, contrary to what is seen in conventional fertilization techniques wherein the sperm and egg
is placed in a petri dish and the sperm fertilizes the egg on its own.
5. Artificial insemination – deliberate introduction of sperms into the female’s cervix or uterus to
achieve pregnancy without sexual intercourse. It can of the following types:
 Intrauterine insemination
 Intracervical insemination
 Intratubal insemination