Earth's rotation

Earth's rotation or Earth's spin is the rotation of planet

Earth around its own axis, as well as changes in the
orientation of the rotation axis in space. Earth rotates
eastward, in prograde motion. As viewed from the northern
polar star Polaris, Earth turns counterclockwise.

The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or

Terrestrial North Pole, is the point in the Northern
Hemisphere where Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface.
This point is distinct from Earth's north magnetic pole. The
South Pole is the other point where Earth's axis of rotation
intersects its surface, in Antarctica.

Earth rotates once in about 24 hours with respect to the Sun, Earth's rotation imaged by Deep Space
but once every 23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds with Climate Observatory, showing tilt

respect to other distant stars (see below). Earth's rotation is

slowing slightly with time; thus, a day was shorter in the past. This is due to the tidal effects the Moon
has on Earth's rotation. Atomic clocks show that the modern day is longer by about 1.7 milliseconds than
a century ago,[1] slowly increasing the rate at which UTC is adjusted by leap seconds. Analysis of
historical astronomical records shows a slowing trend; the length of a day increased by about 2.3
milliseconds per century since the 8th century BCE.[2]

Scientists reported that in 2020 Earth had started spinning faster, after consistently spinning slower than
86,400 seconds per day in the decades before. On June 29, 2022, Earth's spin was completed in 1.59
milliseconds under 24 hours, setting a new record.[3] Because of that trend, engineers worldwide are
discussing a 'negative leap second' and other possible timekeeping measures.[4]

This increase in speed is thought to be due to various factors, including the complex motion of its molten
core, oceans, and atmosphere, the effect of celestial bodies such as the Moon, and possibly climate
change, which is causing the ice at Earth's poles to melt. The masses of ice account for the Earth's shape
being that of an oblate spheroid, bulging around the equator. When these masses are reduced, the poles
rebound from the loss of weight, and Earth becomes more spherical, which has the effect of bringing
mass closer to its centre of gravity. Conservation of angular momentum dictates that a mass distributed
more closely around its centre of gravity spins faster.[5]

History
Among the ancient Greeks, several of the Pythagorean school believed in the rotation of Earth rather than
the apparent diurnal rotation of the heavens. Perhaps the first was Philolaus (470–385 BCE), though his
system was complicated, including a counter-earth rotating daily about a central fire.[6]
A more conventional picture was supported by Hicetas,
Heraclides and Ecphantus in the fourth century BCE who
assumed that Earth rotated but did not suggest that Earth
revolved about the Sun. In the third century BCE, Aristarchus
of Samos suggested the Sun's central place.

However, Aristotle in the fourth century BCE criticized the

ideas of Philolaus as being based on theory rather than
observation. He established the idea of a sphere of fixed stars
This long-exposure photo of the northern
that rotated about Earth.[7] This was accepted by most of
night sky above the Nepali Himalayas
those who came after, in particular Claudius Ptolemy (2nd
shows the apparent paths of the stars as
century CE), who thought Earth would be devastated by gales Earth rotates.
if it rotated.[8]

In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata suggested that the spherical Earth rotates about its axis daily
and that the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the rotation of the Earth. He
provided the following analogy: "Just as a man in a boat going in one direction sees the stationary things
on the bank as moving in the opposite direction, in the same way to a man at Lanka the fixed stars appear
to be going westward."[9][10]

In the 10th century, some Muslim astronomers accepted that the Earth rotates around its axis.[11]
According to al-Biruni, al-Sijzi (d. c. 1020) invented an astrolabe called al-zūraqī based on the idea
believed by some of his contemporaries "that the motion we see is due to the Earth's movement and not to
that of the sky."[12][13] The prevalence of this view is further confirmed by a reference from the 13th
century which states: "According to the geometers [or engineers] (muhandisīn), the Earth is in constant
circular motion, and what appears to be the motion of the heavens is actually due to the motion of the
Earth and not the stars."[12] Treatises were written to discuss its possibility, either as refutations or
expressing doubts about Ptolemy's arguments against it.[14] At the Maragha and Samarkand observatories,
Earth's rotation was discussed by Tusi (born 1201) and Qushji (born 1403); the arguments and evidence
they used resemble those used by Copernicus.[15]

In medieval Europe, Thomas Aquinas accepted Aristotle's view[16] and so, reluctantly, did John
Buridan[17] and Nicole Oresme[18] in the fourteenth century. Not until Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543
adopted a heliocentric world system did the contemporary understanding of Earth's rotation begin to be
established. Copernicus pointed out that if the movement of the Earth is violent, then the stars' movement
must be much more so. He acknowledged the contribution of the Pythagoreans and pointed to examples
of relative motion. For Copernicus, this was the first step in establishing the simpler pattern of planets
circling a central Sun.[19]

Tycho Brahe, who produced accurate observations on which Kepler based his laws of planetary motion,
used Copernicus's work as the basis of a system assuming a stationary Earth. In 1600, William Gilbert
strongly supported Earth's rotation in his treatise on Earth's magnetism[20] and thereby influenced many
of his contemporaries.[21]: 208 Those like Gilbert who did not openly support or reject the motion of Earth
about the Sun are called "semi-Copernicans".[21]: 221 A century after Copernicus, Riccioli disputed the
model of a rotating Earth due to the lack of then-observable eastward deflections in falling bodies;[22]
such deflections would later be called the Coriolis effect. However, the contributions of Kepler, Galileo,
and Newton gathered support for the theory of the rotation of the Earth.
Empirical tests
Earth's rotation implies that the Equator bulges and the geographical poles are flattened. In his Principia,
Newton predicted this flattening would amount to one part in 230, and pointed to the pendulum
measurements taken by Richer in 1673 as corroboration of the change in gravity,[23] but initial
measurements of meridian lengths by Picard and Cassini at the end of the 17th century suggested the
opposite. However, measurements by Maupertuis and the French Geodesic Mission in the 1730s
established the oblateness of Earth, thus confirming the positions of both Newton and Copernicus.[24]

In Earth's rotating frame of reference, a freely moving body follows an apparent path that deviates from
the one it would follow in a fixed frame of reference. Because of the Coriolis effect, falling bodies veer
slightly eastward from the vertical plumb line below their point of release, and projectiles veer right in the
Northern Hemisphere (and left in the Southern) from the direction in which they are shot. The Coriolis
effect is mainly observable at a meteorological scale, where it is responsible for the opposite directions of
cyclone rotation in the Northern and Southern hemispheres (anticlockwise and clockwise, respectively).

Robert Hooke, following a suggestion from Newton in 1679, tried unsuccessfully to verify the predicted
eastward deviation of a body dropped from a height of 8.2 meters, but definitive results were obtained
later, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, by Giovanni Battista Guglielmini in Bologna, Johann
Friedrich Benzenberg in Hamburg and Ferdinand Reich in Freiberg, using taller towers and carefully
released weights.[n 1] A ball dropped from a height of 158.5 m departed by 27.4 mm from the vertical
compared with a calculated value of 28.1 mm.

The most celebrated test of Earth's rotation is the Foucault pendulum first built by physicist Léon
Foucault in 1851, which consisted of a lead-filled brass sphere suspended 67 m from the top of the
Panthéon in Paris. Because of Earth's rotation under the swinging pendulum, the pendulum's plane of
oscillation appears to rotate at a rate depending on latitude. At the latitude of Paris, the predicted and
observed shift was about 11 degrees clockwise per hour. Foucault pendulums now swing in museums
worldwide.

Periods

True solar day

Earth's rotation period relative to the Sun (solar noon to solar
noon) is its true solar day or apparent solar day.[26] It
depends on Earth's orbital motion and is thus affected by
changes in the eccentricity and inclination of Earth's orbit.
Both vary over thousands of years, so the annual variation of
the true solar day also varies. Generally, it is longer than the
mean solar day during two periods of the year and shorter Starry circles arc around the south
celestial pole, seen overhead at ESO's
during another two.[n 2] The true solar day tends to be longer
La Silla Observatory.[25]
near perihelion when the Sun apparently moves along the
ecliptic through a greater angle than usual, taking about
10 seconds longer to do so. Conversely, it is about 10 seconds shorter near aphelion. It is about
20 seconds longer near a solstice when the projection of the Sun's apparent motion along the ecliptic onto
the celestial equator causes the Sun to move through a greater angle than usual. Conversely, near an
equinox the projection onto the equator is shorter by about 20 seconds. Currently, the perihelion and
solstice effects combine to lengthen the true solar day near 22 December by 30 mean solar seconds, but
the solstice effect is partially cancelled by the aphelion effect near 19 June when it is only 13 seconds
longer. The effects of the equinoxes shorten it near 26 March and 16 September by 18 seconds and
21 seconds, respectively.[27][28]

Mean solar day

The average of the true solar day during the course of an entire year is the mean solar day, which
contains 86,400 mean solar seconds. Currently, each of these seconds is slightly longer than an SI second
because Earth's mean solar day is now slightly longer than it was during the 19th century due to tidal
friction. The average length of the mean solar day since the introduction of the leap second in 1972 has
been about 0 to 2 ms longer than 86,400 SI seconds.[29][30][31] Random fluctuations due to core-mantle
coupling have an amplitude of about 5 ms.[32][33] The mean solar second between 1750 and 1892 was
chosen in 1895 by Simon Newcomb as the independent unit of time in his Tables of the Sun. These tables
were used to calculate the world's ephemerides between 1900 and 1983, so this second became known as
the ephemeris second. In 1967 the SI second was made equal to the ephemeris second.[34]

The apparent solar time is a measure of Earth's rotation and the difference between it and the mean solar
time is known as the equation of time.

Stellar and sidereal day

Earth's rotation period relative to the International Celestial
Reference Frame, called its stellar day by the International
Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), is
86 164.098 903 691 seconds of mean solar time (UT1)
(23h 56m 4.098 903 691s,
0.997 269 663 237 16 mean solar days).[35][n 3] Earth's
rotation period relative to the precessing mean vernal
equinox, named sidereal day, is
86 164.090 530 832 88 seconds of mean solar time (UT1)
(23h 56m 4.090 530 832 88s, On a prograde planet like Earth, the
0.997 269 566 329 08 mean solar days).[35] Thus, the sidereal stellar day is shorter than the solar day.
day is shorter than the stellar day by about 8.4 ms.[37] At time 1, the Sun and a certain distant
star are both overhead. At time 2, the
Both the stellar day and the sidereal day are shorter than the planet has rotated 360 degrees and the
mean solar day by about 3 minutes 56 seconds. This is a distant star is overhead again but the Sun
is not (1→2 = one stellar day). It is not
result of the Earth turning 1 additional rotation, relative to the
until a little later, at time 3, that the Sun is
celestial reference frame, as it orbits the Sun (so 366.24 overhead again (1→3 = one solar day).
rotations/y). The mean solar day in SI seconds is available
from the IERS for the periods 1623–2005[38] and
1962–2005.[39]
Recently (1999–2010) the average annual length of the mean solar day in excess of 86,400 SI seconds has
varied between 0.25 ms and 1 ms, which must be added to both the stellar and sidereal days given in
mean solar time above to obtain their lengths in SI seconds (see Fluctuations in the length of day).

Angular speed
The angular speed of Earth's rotation in inertial space is
(7.292 115 0 ±
−5 [35][n 4]
0.000 000 1) × 10 radians per SI second.
Multiplying by (180°/π radians) × (86,400 seconds/day)
yields 360.985 6 °/day, indicating that Earth rotates more than
360 degrees relative to the fixed stars in one solar day. Earth's
movement along its nearly circular orbit while it is rotating
once around its axis requires that Earth rotate slightly more
than once relative to the fixed stars before the mean Sun can
pass overhead again, even though it rotates only once (360°) Plot of latitude versus tangential speed.
relative to the mean Sun.[n 5] Multiplying the value in rad/s by The dashed line shows the Kennedy
Earth's equatorial radius of 6,378,137 m (WGS84 ellipsoid) Space Center example. The dot-dash line
(factors of 2π radians needed by both cancel) yields an denotes typical airliner cruise speed.
equatorial speed of 465.10 metres per second
(1,674.4 km/h).[40] Some sources state that Earth's equatorial
speed is slightly less, or 1,669.8 km/h.[41] This is obtained by dividing Earth's equatorial circumference
by 24 hours. However, the use of the solar day is incorrect; it must be the sidereal day, so the
corresponding time unit must be a sidereal hour. This is confirmed by multiplying by the number of
sidereal days in one mean solar day, 1.002 737 909 350 795,[35] which yields the equatorial speed in
mean solar hours given above of 1,674.4 km/h.

The tangential speed of Earth's rotation at a point on Earth can be approximated by multiplying the speed
at the equator by the cosine of the latitude.[42] For example, the Kennedy Space Center is located at
latitude 28.59° N, which yields a speed of: cos(28.59°) × 1,674.4 km/h = 1,470.2 km/h. Latitude is a
placement consideration for spaceports.

The peak of the Cayambe volcano is the point of Earth's surface farthest from its axis; thus, it rotates the
fastest as Earth spins.[43]

Changes

In rotational axis
Earth's rotation axis moves with respect to the fixed stars (inertial space); the components of this motion
are precession and nutation. It also moves with respect to Earth's crust; this is called polar motion.

Precession is a rotation of Earth's rotation axis, caused primarily by external torques from the gravity of
the Sun, Moon, and other bodies. The polar motion is primarily due to free core nutation and the
Chandler wobble.
In rotational speed

Tidal interactions
Over millions of years, Earth's rotation has been slowed significantly
by tidal acceleration through gravitational interactions with the Moon.
Thus angular momentum is slowly transferred to the Moon at a rate
proportional to , where is the orbital radius of the Moon. This
process has gradually increased the length of the day to its current
value, and resulted in the Moon being tidally locked with Earth.
While Everest is Earth's
This gradual rotational deceleration is empirically documented by highest elevation (green) and
Mauna Kea is tallest from its
estimates of day lengths obtained from observations of tidal rhythmites
base (orange), Cayambe is
and stromatolites; a compilation of these measurements[44] found that farthest from Earth's axis (pink)
the length of the day has increased steadily from about 21 hours at 600 and Chimborazo is farthest
Myr ago[45] to the current 24-hour value. By counting the microscopic from Earth's centre (blue). Not
lamina that form at higher tides, tidal frequencies (and thus day to scale
lengths) can be estimated, much like counting tree rings, though these
estimates can be increasingly unreliable at older ages.[46]

Resonant stabilization
The current rate of tidal deceleration is anomalously high,
implying Earth's rotational velocity must have decreased
more slowly in the past. Empirical data[44] tentatively shows
a sharp increase in rotational deceleration about 600 Myr ago.
Some models suggest that Earth maintained a constant day
length of 21 hours throughout much of the Precambrian.[45]
This day length corresponds to the semidiurnal resonant Earth's axial tilt is about 23.4°. It
period of the thermally driven atmospheric tide; at this day oscillates between 22.1° and 24.5° on a
length, the decelerative lunar torque could have been canceled 41,000-year cycle and is currently
by an accelerative torque from the atmospheric tide, resulting decreasing.
in no net torque and a constant rotational period. This
stabilizing effect could have been broken by a sudden change
in global temperature. Recent computational simulations
support this hypothesis and suggest the Marinoan or Sturtian
glaciations broke this stable configuration about 600 Myr
ago; the simulated results agree quite closely with existing
paleorotational data.[47]

Global events A simulated history of Earth's day length,

depicting a resonant-stabilizing event
Some recent large-scale events, such as the 2004 Indian
throughout the Precambrian era[47]
Ocean earthquake, have caused the length of a day to shorten
by 3 microseconds by reducing Earth's moment of inertia.[48]
Post-glacial rebound, ongoing since the last ice age, is also
changing the distribution of Earth's mass, thus affecting the
moment of inertia of Earth and, by the conservation of
angular momentum, Earth's rotation period.[49]

The length of the day can also be influenced by man-made

structures. For example, NASA scientists calculated that the
Deviation of day length from SI-based
water stored in the Three Gorges Dam has increased the day
length of Earth's day by 0.06 microseconds due to the shift in
mass.[50]

Measurement
The primary monitoring of Earth's rotation is performed by very-long-baseline interferometry coordinated
with the Global Positioning System, satellite laser ranging, and other satellite geodesy techniques. This
provides an absolute reference for the determination of universal time, precession and nutation.[51] The
absolute value of Earth rotation including UT1 and nutation can be determined using space geodetic
observations, such as very-long-baseline interferometry and lunar laser ranging, whereas their derivatives,
denoted as length-of-day excess and nutation rates can be derived from satellite observations, such as
GPS, GLONASS, Galileo[52] and satellite laser ranging to geodetic satellites.[53]

Ancient observations
There are recorded observations of solar and lunar eclipses by Babylonian and Chinese astronomers
beginning in the 8th century BCE, as well as from the medieval Islamic world[54] and elsewhere. These
observations can be used to determine changes in Earth's rotation over the last 27 centuries, since the
length of the day is a critical parameter in the calculation of the place and time of eclipses. A change in
day length of milliseconds per century shows up as a change of hours and thousands of kilometers in
eclipse observations. The ancient data are consistent with a shorter day, meaning Earth was turning faster
throughout the past.[55][56]

Cyclic variability
Around every 25–30 years Earth's rotation slows temporarily by a few milliseconds per day, usually
lasting around five years. 2017 was the fourth consecutive year that Earth's rotation has slowed. The
cause of this variability has not yet been determined.[57]

Origin
Earth's original rotation was a vestige of the original angular momentum of the cloud of dust, rocks and
gas that coalesced to form the Solar System. This primordial cloud was composed of hydrogen and
helium produced in the Big Bang, as well as heavier elements ejected by supernovas. As this interstellar
dust is heterogeneous, any asymmetry during gravitational accretion resulted in the angular momentum of
the eventual planet.[58]
However, if the giant-impact hypothesis for the origin of the
Moon is correct, this primordial rotation rate would have been
reset by the Theia impact 4.5 billion years ago. Regardless of
the speed and tilt of Earth's rotation before the impact, it
would have experienced a day some five hours long after the
impact.[59] Tidal effects would then have slowed this rate to
its modern value.

See also An artist's rendering of the protoplanetary

disk
Allais effect
Diurnal cycle
Earth's orbit
Earth orientation parameters
Formation and evolution of the Solar System
Geodesic (in mathematics)
Geodesics in general relativity
Geodesy
History of Earth
History of geodesy
Inner core super-rotation
Nychthemeron
Rossby wave
Spherical Earth
World Geodetic System

Notes
1. See Fallexperimente zum Nachweis der Erdrotation (German Wikipedia article).
2. When Earth's eccentricity exceeds 0.047 and perihelion is at an appropriate equinox or
solstice, only one period with one peak balances another period that has two peaks.[27]
3. Aoki, the ultimate source of these figures, uses the term "seconds of UT1" instead of
"seconds of mean solar time".[36]
4. It can be established that SI seconds apply to this value by following the citation in
"USEFUL CONSTANTS" to E. Groten "Parameters of Common Relevance of Astronomy,
Geodesy, and Geodynamics" ([Link]
Archived ([Link]
part4/[Link]) 21 March 2019 at the Wayback Machine which states units are SI units,
except for an instance not relevant to this value.
5. In astronomy, unlike geometry, 360° means returning to the same point in some cyclical time
scale, either one mean solar day or one sidereal day for rotation on Earth's axis, or one
sidereal year or one mean tropical year or even one mean Julian year containing exactly
365.25 days for revolution around the Sun.
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External links
USNO Earth Orientation ([Link] Archived (http
s://[Link]/web/20110514132451/[Link]
14 May 2011 at the Wayback Machine new site, being populated
USNO IERS ([Link] old
site, to be abandoned
IERS Earth Orientation Center: Earth rotation data and interactive analysis ([Link]
[Link]/eop-pc/)
International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) ([Link]
If the Earth's rotation period is less than 24 hours, why don't our clocks fall out of sync with
the Sun? ([Link]
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-with-the-sun-intermediate?highlight=WyJlYXJ0aCdzIiwiZWFydGgiLCInZWFydGgnIiwiJ2Vh
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