Chapter 4: Digestion

What are the types of food that we eat?

Macronutrients- Nutrients in large quantities.

1) Carbohydrates
2) Proteins
3) Fats/lipids

Micronutrients- Nutrients needed in small quantities

1) Vitamins
2) Minerals

Fibres- Food that cannot be digested or absorbed

Water- Needed to maintain the volume of blood and fluid inside the body.

Carbohydrates:

Elements- Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

The ratio of hydrogen and oxygen is 2:1.

Monosccharides- Contains one monomer unit.

1) Glucose
2) Fructose
3) Galactose

Disaccharides- Contains two monomer units joined together.

1) Maltose- Glucose+ Glucose

2) Sucrose- Glucose+ Fructose
3) Lactose- Glucose+ Galactose

Polysaccharides- Contains many monomer units joined together.

1) Starch- Storage in plants

2) Glycogen- Storage in animals
3) Cellulose- Cell wall in plants.

*Cellulose cannot be digested by the body so it is removed from the body undigested. This acts as
dietary fibre.

Functions of carbohydrates:

1) Are the main source of energy. 1g of carbohydrate release 17kJ of energy.

2) Carbohydrates act as energy storage. E.g- Glycogen in humans
3) Glucose is broken down during respiration.
4) It is needed to make mucus.
5) It is needed to make lubricating fluids in the body. E.g- synovial fluid
Fat=

Elements- Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only. Glycerol and fatty acids join together by
condensation reaction and form three
It is made of fatty acids + glycerol molecules of water.
The glycerol contains OH groups that
1 lipid= 3 fatty acids + 1 glycerol bond with COOH groups in the fatty
acids.

Test for fat:

Add ethanol to the sample. The
sample dissolves.
Add water to the mixture, a white
precipitate is formed.

Structure of glycerol:

Functions of fats:

1) It releases the largest amount of energy per gram. 1gram= 38kJ of energy.
2) Fats are stored in the body as adipose tissue.
3) Fats act as shock absorbers 6) Fats are needed for testosterone , estrogen etc.
4) Fats act as insulator. 7) Fats are needed to make cholesterol which is
5) Fats are essential components of cell membrane. essential for cell membranes and clotting.

Types of fats: 1) Saturated fats- Only contains carbon carbon single bonds e.g- Animal fats

2)Unsaturated fats- Contains at least one carbon carbon double bond. E.g- Vegetable oils.

Cholesterol- Contains saturated fats. Saturated fats are unhealthy fats. Unsaturated are
comparatively healthy fats.

Why are fats harmful for us when taken in excess?

1) Fats contain a large amount of energy. This causes obesity. Obesity makes it difficult for the
person to move around, they get easily tired.
2) Fats get deposited in the blood vessels. This causes the blood vessels to get blocked. Cells can no
longer get oxygen/glucose for respiration.
3) This can lead to heart attacks/ strokes.
Proteins:
Elements- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur.
Proteins= Made of amino acids.
There are 20 different amino acids that are needed by the human body.
The body has thousands/millions of proteins. The proteins are made by changing the sequence
of amino acids.

Functions of proteins:
1) It is needed for growth and repair
2) It is needed to make enzymes
3) Hormones
4) Neurotransmitters
5) Haemoglobin
6) Cell division
7) Cell membrane
8) Can also act as a source of energy when there is a deficiency of carbohydrates. (1g= 17kJ of
energy)

Protein- energy malnutrition- A group of diseases that occur when there is insufficient protein in
the diet.

This is a common disease in malnourished children especially in places like Africa.

Type of protein- energy malnutrition= 1) Kwashiorkor= Thin limbs, swollen belly

2)Marasmus= Swollen belly and face.

Vitamins: Micronutrients
Types:

Vitamin B5- Deficiency causes fatigue, insomnia, mental disturbance, depression

Vitamin B12- Needed to make mature RBC, deficiency causes anaemia.
Minerals: Ions needed by the body.

Roughage/ Dietary fibre- Forms the bulk of the stool, remains undigested, helps prevent constipation.

Water- Needed to maintain the hydration of the body, maintains osmotic pressure of blood.

Digestion continued:

Digestive tract: From mouth to anus

Mouth:

Teeth- Chews the food. Breaks them down into small particles. Increases surface area for enzyme
activity.

Tongue- Rolls the food into a bolus, makes it easy to swallow. Mixes the food with saliva

Saliva- Moistens/softens the food.

Salivary amylase- Breaks down starch into maltose

The food is swallowed into the esophagus.

During swallowing- epiglottis prevents the food from entering the windpipe.

Esophagus- Food moves down the esophagus by peristalsis.

Peristalsis- The smooth muscles above the bolus contract and the smooth muscles below the bolus relax
pushing the food downwards.

The food then enters the stomach.

Stomach:

1) HCl is released that kills the bacteria and makes the conditions acidic.
2) The food is churned, the surface area of the food increases. It is mixed thoroughly with HCl and
enzyme.
3) Pepsin is released- Breaks down proteins into polypeptide. Optimum pH of pepsin is 2. (works
best in acidic conditions)

There is a layer of mucus that covers the stomach to protect it from damage caused by HCl.

Small intestine: Parts-

1) Duodenum- Hepatopancreatic duct opens into the duodenum. The hepatopancreatic duct has a
sphincter which opens when food enters the duodenum.
Liver releases bile which is stored in the gall bladder. The gall bladder releases bile when food
enters duodenum.
Functions of bile- a) Emulsification of fat.= Large fat drops are converted to small droplets.
b) Neutralization of stomach acid= Contains base that neutralizes the acid. (the acidic pH is not
soluble for the enzymes to work, so the pH must be raised)
Pancreas releases pancreatic juice.
Functions of pancreatic juice:
a) Contains bicarbonate ions that neutralize stomach acid.
b) Contains the following enzymes: i) trypsin- breaks down proteins to polypeptides
ii) pancreatic amylase- breaks down starch to maltose
iii) pancreatic lipase- breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.

Importance of neutralizing stomach acid: Enzymes work best at neutral or slightly alkaline pH.

2) Ileum- long and twisted portion of the small intestine. Carries out digestion and absorption.
Digestive function of ileum: releases the following enzymes:
a) Maltase- breaks down maltose to glucose
b) Sucrase- breaks down sucrose to glucose and fructose
c) Lactase- breaks down lactose to glucose and galactose
d) Polypeptidase- breaks down polypeptides to amino acids
e) Lipase- breaks down lipids to fatty acids and glycerol.
Absorptive function of ileum- Absorbs carbohydrates and proteins in blood through blood
capillaries. Absorbs fats through lacteals.
Adaptations of ileum- i) have villi and microvilli to increase surface area for absorption
ii) has rich network of capillaries. This increases the rate of diffusion.
iii) has rapid blood supply that maintains the concentration gradient.
iv) has thin wall to decrease the distance for diffusion.
v) is long and twisted to increase the time for which the food is in the small intestine to
increase the time available for diffusion.
 3) Large intestine- Undigested foo enters into the large intestine where it is stored and egested.
Bulk of feces is created by dietary fibers. Dietary fibers retain water to soften the feces. The
dietary fibers give the feces bulk to maintain peristalsis.
The feces are stored in the rectum and are expelled by the anus. The release of feces is
controlled by voluntary sphincter.
The large intestine absorbs water.
Why should the urge defecate not be ignored?
Water gets absorbed, stool gets hardened. Becomes difficult to defecate leading to constipation.

Where is bile stored in the body?

It is stored in the gall bladder.
Why does bile need to be stored?
Bile is only needed when food reaches the duodenum. If bile was released as soon as it was produced in
the liver, it would be wasted.
It is stored in the gall bladder and only released when food enters the intestine from the stomach.
Why do faeces have a yellow colour?
Bile contains bilirubin (a product made from the breakdown of red blood cells). This gives the faeces its
yellow colour.

Metabolic functions of liver:

a) Detoxification- Breaks down toxic substances.
All substances absorbed from the intestine enter into the liver through the HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN.
Any toxic substances are broken down so that they do not enter the blood. (e.g alcohol)
b) Deamination- Excess amino acids are broken down to ammonia which are then converted to less toxic
substances like urea and uric acid in the liver.
The nitrogenous waste products are excreted in the kidney.
c) Metabolism of glucose- Excess blood glucose is converted to glycogen and stored in the liver with the
help of the hormone insulin (insulin is secreted from the pancreas)