Python Basics with Numpy (optional assignment)
Welcome to your first assignment. This exercise gives you a brief introduction to
Python. Even if you've used Python before, this will help familiarize you with
functions we'll need.
Instructions:
You will be using Python 3.
Avoid using for-loops and while-loops, unless you are explicitly told to do so.
Do not modify the (# GRADED FUNCTION [function name]) comment in some cells. Your
work would not be graded if you change this. Each cell containing that comment
should only contain one function.
After coding your function, run the cell right below it to check if your result is
correct.
After this assignment you will:
Be able to use iPython Notebooks
Be able to use numpy functions and numpy matrix/vector operations
Understand the concept of "broadcasting"
Be able to vectorize code
Let's get started!
Updates to Assignment
This is version 3a of the notebook.
If you were working on a previous version
If you were already working on version "3", you'll find your original work in the
file directory.
To reach the file directory, click on the "Coursera" icon in the top left of this
notebook.
Please still use the most recent notebook to submit your assignment.
List of Updates
softmax section has a comment to clarify the use of "m" later in the course
softmax function specifies (m,n) matrix dimensions to match the notation in the
preceding diagram (instead of n,m)
About iPython Notebooks
iPython Notebooks are interactive coding environments embedded in a webpage. You
will be using iPython notebooks in this class. You only need to write code between
the ### START CODE HERE ### and ### END CODE HERE ### comments. After writing your
code, you can run the cell by either pressing "SHIFT"+"ENTER" or by clicking on
"Run Cell" (denoted by a play symbol) in the upper bar of the notebook.
We will often specify "(≈ X lines of code)" in the comments to tell you about how
much code you need to write. It is just a rough estimate, so don't feel bad if your
code is longer or shorter.
Exercise: Set test to "Hello World" in the cell below to print "Hello World" and
run the two cells below.
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
test = "Hello World"
### END CODE HERE ###
print ("test: " + test)
test: Hello World
Expected output: test: Hello World
**What you need to remember**: - Run your cells using SHIFT+ENTER (or "Run cell") -
Write code in the designated areas using Python 3 only - Do not modify the code
outside of the designated areas
1 - Building basic functions with numpy
Numpy is the main package for scientific computing in Python. It is maintained by a
large community ([Link]). In this exercise you will learn several key numpy
functions such as [Link], [Link], and [Link]. You will need to know how to use
these functions for future assignments.
1.1 - sigmoid function, [Link]()
Before using [Link](), you will use [Link]() to implement the sigmoid function.
You will then see why [Link]() is preferable to [Link]().
Exercise: Build a function that returns the sigmoid of a real number x. Use
[Link](x) for the exponential function.
Reminder: sigmoid(x)=11+e−x
is sometimes also known as the logistic function. It is a non-linear function used
not only in Machine Learning (Logistic Regression), but also in Deep Learning.
To refer to a function belonging to a specific package you could call it using
package_name.function(). Run the code below to see an example with [Link]().
# GRADED FUNCTION: basic_sigmoid
import math
def basic_sigmoid(x):
"""
Compute sigmoid of x.
Arguments:
x -- A scalar
Return:
s -- sigmoid(x)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
s = 1/(1+[Link](-x))
### END CODE HERE ###
return s
basic_sigmoid(3)
0.9525741268224334
Expected Output:
** basic_sigmoid(3) ** 0.9525741268224334
Actually, we rarely use the "math" library in deep learning because the inputs of
the functions are real numbers. In deep learning we mostly use matrices and
vectors. This is why numpy is more useful.
### One reason why we use "numpy" instead of "math" in Deep Learning ###
x = [1, 2, 3]
basic_sigmoid(x) # you will see this give an error when you run it, because x is a
vector.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
TypeError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-9-8ccefa5bf989> in <module>
1 ### One reason why we use "numpy" instead of "math" in Deep Learning ###
2 x = [1, 2, 3]
----> 3 basic_sigmoid(x) # you will see this give an error when you run it, because
x is a vector.
<ipython-input-5-a94180fb1694> in basic_sigmoid(x)
15
16 ### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
---> 17 s = 1/(1+[Link](-x))
18 ### END CODE HERE ###
19
TypeError: bad operand type for unary -: 'list'
In fact, if x=(x1,x2,...,xn)
is a row vector then [Link](x)
will apply the exponential function to every element of x. The output will thus
be: [Link](x)=(ex1,ex2,...,exn)
import numpy as np
# example of [Link]
x = [Link]([1, 2, 3])
print([Link](x)) # result is (exp(1), exp(2), exp(3))
[ 2.71828183 7.3890561 20.08553692]
Furthermore, if x is a vector, then a Python operation such as s=x+3
or s=1x
will output s as a vector of the same size as x.
# example of vector operation
x = [Link]([1, 2, 3])
print (x + 3)
Any time you need more info on a numpy function, we encourage you to look at the
official documentation.
You can also create a new cell in the notebook and write [Link]? (for example) to
get quick access to the documentation.
Exercise: Implement the sigmoid function using numpy.
Instructions: x could now be either a real number, a vector, or a matrix. The data
structures we use in numpy to represent these shapes (vectors, matrices...) are
called numpy arrays. You don't need to know more for now.
For x∈Rn,
sigmoid(x)=sigmoid⎛⎝⎜⎜⎜x1x2...xn⎞⎠⎟⎟⎟=⎛⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜⎜11+e−x111+e−x2...11+e−xn⎞⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟⎟(1)
# GRADED FUNCTION: sigmoid
import numpy as np # this means you can access numpy functions by writing
[Link]() instead of [Link]()
def sigmoid(x):
"""
Compute the sigmoid of x
Arguments:
x -- A scalar or numpy array of any size
Return:
s -- sigmoid(x)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
s = 1/([Link](-x) + 1)
### END CODE HERE ###
return s
x = [Link]([1, 2, 3])
sigmoid(x)
array([0.73105858, 0.88079708, 0.95257413])
Expected Output:
**sigmoid([1,2,3])** array([ 0.73105858, 0.88079708, 0.95257413])
1.2 - Sigmoid gradient
As you've seen in lecture, you will need to compute gradients to optimize loss
functions using backpropagation. Let's code your first gradient function.
Exercise: Implement the function sigmoid_grad() to compute the gradient of the
sigmoid function with respect to its input x. The formula is:
sigmoid_derivative(x)=σ′(x)=σ(x)(1−σ(x))(2)
You often code this function in two steps:
Set s to be the sigmoid of x. You might find your sigmoid(x) function useful.
Compute σ′(x)=s(1−s)
# GRADED FUNCTION: sigmoid_derivative
def sigmoid_derivative(x):
"""
Compute the gradient (also called the slope or derivative) of the sigmoid
function with respect to its input x.
You can store the output of the sigmoid function into variables and then use it
to calculate the gradient.
Arguments:
x -- A scalar or numpy array
Return:
ds -- Your computed gradient.
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
s = sigmoid(x)
ds = s*(1-s)
### END CODE HERE ###
return ds
x = [Link]([1, 2, 3])
print ("sigmoid_derivative(x) = " + str(sigmoid_derivative(x)))
sigmoid_derivative(x) = [0.19661193 0.10499359 0.04517666]
Expected Output:
**sigmoid_derivative([1,2,3])** [ 0.19661193 0.10499359 0.04517666]
1.3 - Reshaping arrays
Two common numpy functions used in deep learning are [Link] and [Link]().
[Link] is used to get the shape (dimension) of a matrix/vector X.
[Link](...) is used to reshape X into some other dimension.
For example, in computer science, an image is represented by a 3D array of shape
(length,height,depth=3)
. However, when you read an image as the input of an algorithm you convert it to a
vector of shape (length∗height∗3,1)
. In other words, you "unroll", or reshape, the 3D array into a 1D vector.
Exercise: Implement image2vector() that takes an input of shape (length, height, 3)
and returns a vector of shape (length*height*3, 1). For example, if you would like
to reshape an array v of shape (a, b, c) into a vector of shape (a*b,c) you would
do:
v = [Link](([Link][0]*[Link][1], [Link][2])) # [Link][0] = a ; [Link][1] =
b ; [Link][2] = c
Please don't hardcode the dimensions of image as a constant. Instead look up the
quantities you need with [Link][0], etc.
# GRADED FUNCTION: image2vector
def image2vector(image):
"""
Argument:
image -- a numpy array of shape (length, height, depth)
Returns:
v -- a vector of shape (length*height*depth, 1)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
v = [Link]([Link][0]*[Link][1]*[Link][2],1)
### END CODE HERE ###
return v
# This is a 3 by 3 by 2 array, typically images will be (num_px_x, num_px_y,3)
where 3 represents the RGB values
image = [Link]([[[ 0.67826139, 0.29380381],
[ 0.90714982, 0.52835647],
[ 0.4215251 , 0.45017551]],
[[ 0.92814219, 0.96677647],
[ 0.85304703, 0.52351845],
[ 0.19981397, 0.27417313]],
[[ 0.60659855, 0.00533165],
[ 0.10820313, 0.49978937],
[ 0.34144279, 0.94630077]]])
print ("image2vector(image) = " + str(image2vector(image)))
image2vector(image) = [[0.67826139]
[0.29380381]
[0.90714982]
[0.52835647]
[0.4215251 ]
[0.45017551]
[0.92814219]
[0.96677647]
[0.85304703]
[0.52351845]
[0.19981397]
[0.27417313]
[0.60659855]
[0.00533165]
[0.10820313]
[0.49978937]
[0.34144279]
[0.94630077]]
Expected Output:
**image2vector(image)** [[ 0.67826139] [ 0.29380381] [ 0.90714982] [ 0.52835647]
[ 0.4215251 ] [ 0.45017551] [ 0.92814219] [ 0.96677647] [ 0.85304703] [ 0.52351845]
[ 0.19981397] [ 0.27417313] [ 0.60659855] [ 0.00533165] [ 0.10820313] [ 0.49978937]
[ 0.34144279] [ 0.94630077]]
1.4 - Normalizing rows
Another common technique we use in Machine Learning and Deep Learning is to
normalize our data. It often leads to a better performance because gradient descent
converges faster after normalization. Here, by normalization we mean changing x to
x∥x∥
(dividing each row vector of x by its norm).
For example, if
x=[023644](3)
then
∥x∥=[Link](x,axis=1,keepdims=True)=[556−−√](4)
and
x_normalized=x∥x∥=[0256√35656√45456√](5)
Note that you can divide matrices of different sizes and it works fine: this is
called broadcasting and you're going to learn about it in part 5.
Exercise: Implement normalizeRows() to normalize the rows of a matrix. After
applying this function to an input matrix x, each row of x should be a vector of
unit length (meaning length 1).
# GRADED FUNCTION: normalizeRows
def normalizeRows(x):
"""
Implement a function that normalizes each row of the matrix x (to have unit
length).
Argument:
x -- A numpy matrix of shape (n, m)
Returns:
x -- The normalized (by row) numpy matrix. You are allowed to modify x.
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 2 lines of code)
# Compute x_norm as the norm 2 of x. Use [Link](..., ord = 2, axis
= ..., keepdims = True)
x_norm = [Link](x,axis = 1,keepdims=True)
# Divide x by its norm.
x = x/x_norm
### END CODE HERE ###
return x
x = [Link]([
[0, 3, 4],
[1, 6, 4]])
print("normalizeRows(x) = " + str(normalizeRows(x)))
normalizeRows(x) = [[0. 0.6 0.8 ]
[0.13736056 0.82416338 0.54944226]]
Expected Output:
**normalizeRows(x)** [[ 0. 0.6 0.8 ] [ 0.13736056 0.82416338 0.54944226]]
Note: In normalizeRows(), you can try to print the shapes of x_norm and x, and then
rerun the assessment. You'll find out that they have different shapes. This is
normal given that x_norm takes the norm of each row of x. So x_norm has the same
number of rows but only 1 column. So how did it work when you divided x by x_norm?
This is called broadcasting and we'll talk about it now!
1.5 - Broadcasting and the softmax function
A very important concept to understand in numpy is "broadcasting". It is very
useful for performing mathematical operations between arrays of different shapes.
For the full details on broadcasting, you can read the official broadcasting
documentation.
Exercise: Implement a softmax function using numpy. You can think of softmax as a
normalizing function used when your algorithm needs to classify two or more
classes. You will learn more about softmax in the second course of this
specialization.
Instructions:
$ \text{for } x \in \mathbb{R}^{1\times n} \text{, } softmax(x) = softmax(\
begin{bmatrix} x_1 && x_2 && ... && x_n
\end{bmatrix}) =
[ex1∑jexjex2∑jexj...exn∑jexj]
$
for a matrix x∈Rm×n, xij maps to the element in the ith row and jth column of x,
thus we have:
$$softmax(x) = softmax\begin{bmatrix} x_{11} & x_{12} & x_{13} & \dots & x_{1n} \
x_{21} & x_{22} & x_{23} & \dots & x_{2n} \ \vdots & \vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \
vdots \ x_{m1} & x_{m2} & x_{m3} & \dots & x_{mn}
\end{bmatrix} =
23∑jex2j⋮ exm3∑jexmj……⋱…ex1n∑jex1jex2n∑jex2j⋮ exmn∑jexmj⎤ ⎦ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥ ⎥
⎡ ⎣ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ⎢ ex11∑jex1jex21∑jex2j⋮ exm1∑jexmjex12∑jex1jex22∑jex2j⋮ exm2∑jexmjex13∑jex1jex
=
⎛⎝⎜⎜⎜⎜softmax(first row of x)softmax(second row of x)...softmax(last row of
x)⎞⎠⎟⎟⎟⎟
$$
Note
Note that later in the course, you'll see "m" used to represent the "number of
training examples", and each training example is in its own column of the matrix.
Also, each feature will be in its own row (each row has data for the same feature).
Softmax should be performed for all features of each training example, so softmax
would be performed on the columns (once we switch to that representation later in
this course).
However, in this coding practice, we're just focusing on getting familiar with
Python, so we're using the common math notation m×n
where m
is the number of rows and n
is the number of columns.
# GRADED FUNCTION: softmax
def softmax(x):
"""Calculates the softmax for each row of the input x.
Your code should work for a row vector and also for matrices of shape (m,n).
Argument:
x -- A numpy matrix of shape (m,n)
Returns:
s -- A numpy matrix equal to the softmax of x, of shape (m,n)
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 3 lines of code)
# Apply exp() element-wise to x. Use [Link](...).
x_exp = [Link](x)
# Create a vector x_sum that sums each row of x_exp. Use [Link](..., axis = 1,
keepdims = True).
x_sum = [Link](x_exp,axis=1,keepdims=True)
# Compute softmax(x) by dividing x_exp by x_sum. It should automatically use
numpy broadcasting.
s = x_exp/x_sum
### END CODE HERE ###
return s
x = [Link]([
[9, 2, 5, 0, 0],
[7, 5, 0, 0 ,0]])
print("softmax(x) = " + str(softmax(x)))
softmax(x) = [[9.80897665e-01 8.94462891e-04 1.79657674e-02 1.21052389e-04
1.21052389e-04]
[8.78679856e-01 1.18916387e-01 8.01252314e-04 8.01252314e-04
8.01252314e-04]]
Expected Output:
<tr>
<td> **softmax(x)** </td>
<td> [[ 9.80897665e-01 8.94462891e-04 1.79657674e-02 1.21052389e-04
1.21052389e-04]
[ 8.78679856e-01 1.18916387e-01 8.01252314e-04 8.01252314e-04 8.01252314e-04]]
Note:
If you print the shapes of x_exp, x_sum and s above and rerun the assessment cell,
you will see that x_sum is of shape (2,1) while x_exp and s are of shape (2,5).
x_exp/x_sum works due to python broadcasting.
Congratulations! You now have a pretty good understanding of python numpy and have
implemented a few useful functions that you will be using in deep learning.
**What you need to remember:** - [Link](x) works for any [Link] x and applies the
exponential function to every coordinate - the sigmoid function and its gradient -
image2vector is commonly used in deep learning - [Link] is widely used. In the
future, you'll see that keeping your matrix/vector dimensions straight will go
toward eliminating a lot of bugs. - numpy has efficient built-in functions -
broadcasting is extremely useful
2) Vectorization
In deep learning, you deal with very large datasets. Hence, a non-computationally-
optimal function can become a huge bottleneck in your algorithm and can result in a
model that takes ages to run. To make sure that your code is computationally
efficient, you will use vectorization. For example, try to tell the difference
between the following implementations of the dot/outer/elementwise product.
import time
x1 = [9, 2, 5, 0, 0, 7, 5, 0, 0, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0]
x2 = [9, 2, 2, 9, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0]
### CLASSIC DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS IMPLEMENTATION ###
tic = time.process_time()
dot = 0
for i in range(len(x1)):
dot+= x1[i]*x2[i]
toc = time.process_time()
print ("dot = " + str(dot) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc - tic))
+ "ms")
### CLASSIC OUTER PRODUCT IMPLEMENTATION ###
tic = time.process_time()
outer = [Link]((len(x1),len(x2))) # we create a len(x1)*len(x2) matrix with only
zeros
for i in range(len(x1)):
for j in range(len(x2)):
outer[i,j] = x1[i]*x2[j]
toc = time.process_time()
print ("outer = " + str(outer) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc -
tic)) + "ms")
### CLASSIC ELEMENTWISE IMPLEMENTATION ###
tic = time.process_time()
mul = [Link](len(x1))
for i in range(len(x1)):
mul[i] = x1[i]*x2[i]
toc = time.process_time()
print ("elementwise multiplication = " + str(mul) + "\n ----- Computation time = "
+ str(1000*(toc - tic)) + "ms")
### CLASSIC GENERAL DOT PRODUCT IMPLEMENTATION ###
W = [Link](3,len(x1)) # Random 3*len(x1) numpy array
tic = time.process_time()
gdot = [Link]([Link][0])
for i in range([Link][0]):
for j in range(len(x1)):
gdot[i] += W[i,j]*x1[j]
toc = time.process_time()
print ("gdot = " + str(gdot) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc -
tic)) + "ms")
x1 = [9, 2, 5, 0, 0, 7, 5, 0, 0, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0]
x2 = [9, 2, 2, 9, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0, 9, 2, 5, 0, 0]
### VECTORIZED DOT PRODUCT OF VECTORS ###
tic = time.process_time()
dot = [Link](x1,x2)
toc = time.process_time()
print ("dot = " + str(dot) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc - tic))
+ "ms")
### VECTORIZED OUTER PRODUCT ###
tic = time.process_time()
outer = [Link](x1,x2)
toc = time.process_time()
print ("outer = " + str(outer) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc -
tic)) + "ms")
### VECTORIZED ELEMENTWISE MULTIPLICATION ###
tic = time.process_time()
mul = [Link](x1,x2)
toc = time.process_time()
print ("elementwise multiplication = " + str(mul) + "\n ----- Computation time = "
+ str(1000*(toc - tic)) + "ms")
### VECTORIZED GENERAL DOT PRODUCT ###
tic = time.process_time()
dot = [Link](W,x1)
toc = time.process_time()
print ("gdot = " + str(dot) + "\n ----- Computation time = " + str(1000*(toc -
tic)) + "ms")
As you may have noticed, the vectorized implementation is much cleaner and more
efficient. For bigger vectors/matrices, the differences in running time become even
bigger.
Note that [Link]() performs a matrix-matrix or matrix-vector multiplication. This
is different from [Link]() and the * operator (which is equivalent to .* in
Matlab/Octave), which performs an element-wise multiplication.
2.1 Implement the L1 and L2 loss functions
Exercise: Implement the numpy vectorized version of the L1 loss. You may find the
function abs(x) (absolute value of x) useful.
Reminder:
The loss is used to evaluate the performance of your model. The bigger your loss
is, the more different your predictions (y^
) are from the true values (y
). In deep learning, you use optimization algorithms like Gradient Descent to train
your model and to minimize the cost.
L1 loss is defined as:
L1(y^,y)=∑i=0m|y(i)−y^(i)|(6)
# GRADED FUNCTION: L1
def L1(yhat, y):
"""
Arguments:
yhat -- vector of size m (predicted labels)
y -- vector of size m (true labels)
Returns:
loss -- the value of the L1 loss function defined above
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
loss = sum(abs(yhat - y))
### END CODE HERE ###
return loss
yhat = [Link]([.9, 0.2, 0.1, .4, .9])
y = [Link]([1, 0, 0, 1, 1])
print("L1 = " + str(L1(yhat,y)))
L1 = 1.1
Expected Output:
**L1** 1.1
Exercise: Implement the numpy vectorized version of the L2 loss. There are several
way of implementing the L2 loss but you may find the function [Link]() useful. As a
reminder, if x=[x1,x2,...,xn]
, then [Link](x,x) = ∑nj=0x2j
.
L2 loss is defined as
L2(y^,y)=∑i=0m(y(i)−y^(i))2(7)
# GRADED FUNCTION: L2
def L2(yhat, y):
"""
Arguments:
yhat -- vector of size m (predicted labels)
y -- vector of size m (true labels)
Returns:
loss -- the value of the L2 loss function defined above
"""
### START CODE HERE ### (≈ 1 line of code)
x = yhat - y
loss = [Link](x,x)
### END CODE HERE ###
return loss
yhat = [Link]([.9, 0.2, 0.1, .4, .9])
y = [Link]([1, 0, 0, 1, 1])
print("L2 = " + str(L2(yhat,y)))
L2 = 0.43
Expected Output:
**L2** 0.43
Congratulations on completing this assignment. We hope that this little warm-up
exercise helps you in the future assignments, which will be more exciting and
interesting!
**What to remember:** - Vectorization is very important in deep learning. It
provides computational efficiency and clarity. - You have reviewed the L1 and L2
loss. - You are familiar with many numpy functions such as [Link], [Link],
[Link], [Link], etc...