E. DIVYA B.

PHARM | Divya Ezhumalai

B. PHARM SEVENTH SEMESTER ALL SUBJECTS

2 MARKS

[Link] SUBJECT SUBJECT PAGE

CODE NUMGER

1. BP701T INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS

2. BP702T INDUSTRIAL PHARMACY-Ⅱ

3. BP703T PHARMACY PRACTICE

4. BP504T NOVEL DRUG DELIVERY SYSTEM

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INSTRUMENTAL METHODS OF ANALYSIS

BP701T
UNIT-1
[Link] spectroscopy.
Spectroscopy is the measurement and interpretation of electromagnetic radiation [EMR]
absorbed or emitted when the molecules or atoms or ions of a sample from one energy state to
another energy state.
It is the branch of science that deals with the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation
with matter.
[Link] UV-Visible spectroscopy.
UV visible spectroscopy is also known as electron absorption spectroscopy as molecules
absorb radiation resulting in the transition between electronic energy levels.
Absorption of radiation in UV [wavelength range 190-400nm] and visible [wavelength 400-
800nm] regions result in transitions between electronic energy levels.
[Link] Electromagnetic radiation. [EMR]
Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy which consist of electric and magnetic vectors.
EMR is produced by oscillating electric and magnetic disturbance or by the movement of
electrically charged particles travelling through a vacuum or matter.
EMR consist of dual nature of both wave and a particle characteristic.
[Link] electronic transition.
Electronic transition is defined as electromagnetic radiation which causes electron to be excited
which result in promotion from a bonding or non-bonding orbitals.
Energy absorbed by UV-Visible region by molecule causes changes in electronic energy
resulting in the transition of electron from ground state to excited state.
[Link] wave length.
It is the distance between the adjacent crests or troughs in a particular wave. It is distance
between successiv0e maxima on an electromagnetic wave.
It is denoted by λ [lambda]. It can be expressed in Angstrom [Å] or nanometer [nm] or
millimicrons [mμ] or centimeter [cm] or micrometer [μm].
[Link] wave number.
It is the reciprocal of wavelength and it is expressed in per centimeter; or it is defined as the
total number of waves which can pass through a space of 1cm. It is expressed as cm-1 or kaiser.
Wave number=1/λ.
[Link] frequency.

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It is defined as the number of waves which can pass through a point in one second. It is denoted
by ν [nu] in cycles per second or in hertz [Hz].
[Link] the principle involved in UV spectroscopy.
It is type of absorption spectroscopy which is based on absorption of light of ultra-violet region
by the molecule which results in the excitation of the electrons from the ground state or lower
energy state to higher energy state.
[Link] atomic spectroscopy and give example.
This spectroscopy is concerned with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with atoms.
Example: Atomic absorption spectroscopy, Flame photometry.
[Link] molecular spectroscopy and give example.
This spectroscopy deals with the interaction of electromagnetic radiation with molecule.
Example: UV spectroscopy, Colorimetry.
[Link] chromophore and classify them with example.
The part of a molecule responsible for imparting colour are called as chromophore. The
functional group containing multiple bonds are capable of absorbing radiations above 200nm.
Types:
i. Chromophore in which group is having π electrons.
Example: Ethylene, Acetylene.
ii. Chromophore in which group is having π and n electrons.
Example: Carbonyl, Nitrile, Azo compounds, Nitro compounds.
[Link] auxochrome and give example.
An auxochrome is any group which does not itself acts as a chromophore but when it is attached
to chromophore, it brings about a shift of the absorption band towards the longer wavelength
along with increase in intensity of absorption.
Example: -OH, -OR, -NH2, -NR2, -SH.
[Link] bathochromic shift. Give example.
The shifting of absorption maximum towards longer wavelength due to introduction of
auxochrome is called bathochromic shift.
It is also called as forward shift or red shift.
Example: Acetone in water.
[Link] hypsochromic shift. Give example.
The shifting of absorption maximum towards shorter wavelength due to removal of conjugation
in the system is called as hypsochromic shift.
It is also called as backward shift or blue shift.

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Example: Methyl orange in alkaline solution.

[Link] hyperchromic shift with example.
Increase in the intensity of absorption due to introduction of auxochrome is called as
hyperchromic shift.
Example: Paracetamol in alkaline medium.
[Link] hypochromic shift with example.
Decrease in the intensity of absorption dur to removal of conjugation is called as hypochromic
shift.
Example: p-nitrophenol in alkaline medium.
[Link] is chromogenic agent? Give example.
Chromogens or chromogenic agent are those which is capable of forming a chromophore or
colour by complexation, chemical reaction and ionization.
Example: Ferric chloride when added to salicylic acid produces a violet colour. So ferric
chloride [Reagent] is called as chromogen.
[Link] Isobestic point.
The wavelength of equal absorptivity of the two species [A and B], or same substances in two
different mediums, that wavelength is known as isobestic point.
[Link] Beer’s law.
Beer’s law states that ‘when a beam of monochromatic light is passed through a solution of an
absorbing substance, the rate of decrease of intensity of radiation with concentration of the
absorbing solution is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation as well as the
concentration of the solution’.
[Link] Lambert’s law.
Lambert’s law states that ‘when a beam of monochromatic light passes through a homogenous
absorbing medium, the rate of decrease of intensity of radiation with thickness [path length] of
the absorbing solution is proportional to the intensity of incident radiation.
[Link] Beer-Lambert’s law.
A=εct
Where,
A= Absorbance.
ε=Molecular extinction coefficient.
c=Concentration of sample.
t=Path length.

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[Link] the different components of UV spectrophotometer.

i. Radiation source.
ii. Filters and monochromators.
iii. Sample cell.
iv. Detector.
v. Recording device.
[Link] the ideal characteristics of light source.
i. It should be stable and should not show fluctuation.
ii. It should provide light of sufficient intensity.
iii. It should be economical.
iv. It should emit a continuous spectrum.
v. It should be simple in construction and operation.
[Link] the radiation sources used in UV spectrometry.
i. Hydrogen discharge lamp.
ii. Deuterium lamp.
iii. Xenon discharge lamp.
iv. Mercury arc.
[Link] filters and write its types.
A filter is a device which allows only the light of required wavelength to pass through and
absorbs the unwanted radiation.
Types:
i. Absorption filters.
ii. Interference filter.
[Link] monochromator and write its types.
A monochromator is a device which converts a polychromatic light to monochromatic light.
Types:
i. Prism monochromators.
- Refractive type.
- Reflective type.
ii. Grating monochromators.
- Diffraction gratings.
- Transmission gratings.
[Link] detector. Enlist the detectors used in UV spectrophotometry.
Detector is a device which converts light energy into electrical signals that are displayed on
read out devices.
Sample absorbs a part of radiation and the remaining is transmitted. The transmitted radiation
falls on the detector which determines the intensity of the radiation.

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The detectors used in UV spectrophotometry are

i. Photovoltaic cell detector.
ii. Photo emissive tube detector.
iii. Photomultiplier tube detector.
[Link] the ideal properties for detectors.
i. Adequate sensitivity.
ii. Good stability and reproducibility.
iii. A linear response to solutes.
iv. A temperature range from room temperature to at least 400˚c.
v. Non-destructive of sample.
[Link] the application of UV spectroscopy.
i. Detection of impurities.
ii. Structure elucidation of organic compounds.
iii. Determination of transition metal ions.
iv. Detection of functional group.
v. Distinction between conjugated and non-conjugated system.
30. Define Fluorimetry.
It is the measurement of fluorescence intensity at a particular wavelength with the help of a
filter fluorimeter or a spectrofluorometer.
[Link] the term Fluorescence.
The phenomenon of measurement of emitted radiations when electrons undergo transition from
singlet excited state to singlet ground state is called as fluorescence. The substances showing
this phenomenon are known as fluorescent substances.
[Link] the term Phosphorescence.
The phenomenon of measurement of emitted radiations when electrons undergo transition from
triplet state to singlet ground state is called as phosphorescence. The substances showing
phosphorescence are called phosphorescent substances.
[Link] Luminescence. Write its types.
The phenomenon of emission of light by material is termed as luminescence. It occurs when
an electron returns to the electronic ground state from an excited state and loses its excess
energy as a photon.
Types:
i. Photoluminescence.
ii. Thermoluminescence.
iii. Electroluminescence.
iv. Cathodoluminescence.

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[Link] is Photoluminescence. Give example.

The phenomenon of temporary light absorption and subsequent light emission is called as
photoluminescence. In this process, a molecule absorbs photon in visible region by exciting
one of its electrons to higher electronic excited state and then radiates a photon as electron
returns to a lower energy state.
Example: Fluorescence and Phosphorescence.
[Link] is Electronic state? Give its types.
An electronic state is defined by the electron configuration of the system and by the quantum
numbers of each electron contributing to that configuration.
Types:
i. Singlet ground state.
ii. Doublet state.
iii. Triplet state.
iv. Singlet excited state.
[Link] the different types of Fluorescence.
A. Phenomenon of Absorbed radiation.
i. Stoke’s fluorescence.
ii. Anti-stoke’s fluorescence.
iii. Resonance fluorescence.
B. Phenomenon of emission radiation.
i. Stepwise fluorescence.
ii. Direct line fluorescence.
iii. Thermally assisted fluorescence.
[Link] Internal conversion.
It is an intermolecular process which brings down a molecule to a lower energy electronic state
without emitting light. It involves vibrational relaxation in singlet excited state, singlet excited
state to triplet excited state and vibrational relaxation in triplet state.
[Link] External conversion.
It is a process in which molecules brings down its energy electronic state by emitting light. It
involves singlet excited state to singlet ground state and triplet excited state to a singlet ground
state with emission of light.
[Link] Intersystem crossing.
It is a process in which spin of an excited electrons is reversed and change in multiplicity
results. Most common when vibrational manifold overlap exists and when the molecule has a
heavy atom substituent.
Example: Br, I.

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[Link] Collisional deactivation.

It is defined as in which the entire energy is lost due to collisional deactivation and no radiation
is emitted.
[Link] the factors affecting the fluorescence.
i. Nature of molecule.
ii. Nature of substituent.
iii. Rigidity of structure.
iv. Effect of concentration.
v. Presence of oxygen.
vi. Effect of temperature.
vii. Effect of viscosity.
viii. Effect of Ph.
ix. Phytochemical decomposition.
x. Inter filter effect.
[Link] the principle of Fluorimetry.
Fluorimetry works by exciting substances from their singlet ground state to a singlet excited
state, then measuring the wavelength of light emitted as they return to the ground state.
[Link] between Fluorescence and Phosphorescence.
S.N FLUORESCENCE PHOSPHORESCENCE
O
1. It is the emission of radiation when a It is the emission of radiation when a
substance which was on ground state excite substance in triplet excited state return to
to singlet state and return to ground state. ground state.

2. Radiation is emitted only when light Radiation is emitted even after the light
incident on them. source is removed. It is called delayed
fluorescence.
3. It involves immediate emission of light. It involves delayed emission of light.
[Link] Quenching and write its types.
Quenching is the reduction of the fluorescence intensity by the presence of substance in the
sample other than the fluorescent analyte.
Types:
i. Self quenching.
ii. Chemical quenching.
iii. Static quenching.
iv. Collisional quenching.
[Link] the components used in Fluorimeter.
i. Source of light- Tungsten lamp, Mercury arc lamp, Xenon arc lamp.
ii. Filter- Primary filter and Secondary filter.
iii. Monochromator- Excitation monochromator and Emission monochromator.

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iv. Sample cell.

v. Detector.
- Barrier layer/Photovoltaic cell.
- Photomultiplier tubes.
[Link] the applications of Fluorimetry.
i. Determination of inorganic substances.
ii. Quantitative analysis.
iii. Qualitative analysis.
iv. Cancer diagnosis.
[Link] research.
[Link] the term Static quenching.
The quenching in which quencher molecule forms stable complex with ground state molecule
is known as static quenching.
Example: Caffeine reduces fluorescence of riboflavin by forming complex formation in the
ground state.
[Link] the advantages of Photomultiplier tube.
i. Standard device.
ii. Large signals.
iii. Large active areas possible.
iv. Fast rinse time possible.
[Link] the spectral shifts occur in UV region.
i. Bathochromic shift.
ii. Hypsochromic shift.
iii. Hyperchromic effect.
iv. Hypochromic effect.
[Link] the factors affecting Quenching.
i. PH.
ii. Oxygen.
iii. Temperature.
iv. Halides.
v. Heavy metals.
vi. Electron withdrawing group.
[Link] between singlet state and triplet state.
The main differences between singlet and triplet states are the number of unpaired electrons,
stability and energy level.
i. Number of unpaired electrons: A singlet state has all electrons paired, while triplet state
has two unpaired electrons.
ii. Stability: A triplet state is more stable than a singlet state.

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iii. Energy level: A triplet state is higher in energy than a singlet state.
[Link] Absorptivity.
It means the property of a body that determines the fraction of incident radiation absorbed by
the body. Absorbance per unit length per unit concentration is called absorptivity.
Concentration is expressed in terms of gm/lit.
[Link] Transmittance.
It is defined as the ration of the intensity of light emerging from the solution (L) to that of
incident light entering (L0)
T=L/L0
[Link] Triplet state.
Triplet state energy refers to the energy level of an electronic state in a molecule where 2
electrons have parallel spins in different molecular orbitals.
[Link] Collisional quenching.
The quenching in which fluorescence intensity is reduced due to collision among the functional
Groups present in molecule is called as Collisional quenching.
[Link] the ideal properties of solvents used in UV spectroscopy.
i. It should not itself absorb radiations in the region under investigations.
ii. It should be less polar so that it has minimum interaction with solute molecule.
iii. It should be cheap and have good dissolving power.
iv. It should not absorb the radiation above 210 nm.
[Link] the solvents used in UV spectroscopy along with their wavelengths.
Most commonly used solvent in UV is ethanol. The solvents used in UV spectroscopy along
with their wavelengths are:
Solvent Wavelength(nm)
Water 205
Methanol 210
Ethanol 210
Ether 210
Chloroform 245
[Link] the different components of Monochromators.
i. Entrance slit.
ii. Collimator.
iii. Grating or prism.
iv. Second collimator.
v. Exit slit.

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[Link] Prism. Write its types.

Prism is made from materials like glass, quartz or fused silica. For UV spectrum, quartz or
fused silica is the material of choice.
When the white light is passed through prism, dispersion of polymeric light in rainbow occurs.
Types:
i. Refractive prism.
ii. Reflective prism.
[Link] Grating as monochromator and classify it.
Grating is more effective in converting the polychromatic light into monochromatic light. They
are commonly used in spectrophotometers as they offer resolution of ±0.1nm.
Types:
i. Diffraction grating.
ii. Transmission grating.
[Link] Self quenching.
The quenching in which fluorescence intensity is reduced because of increase in the
concentration of sample is called self quenching.
[Link] the term Quenchers.
Quenchers are substance that are capable of absorbing energy from a fluorophore and re-
emitting much of that energy as either heat or visible light.
Example: Molecular oxygen, Thiocyanate, Halogens.
UNIT-2
[Link] IR spectroscopy.
Infrared spectroscopy or vibrational spectroscopy is concerned with the study of absorption
of infrared radiation, which results in vibrational transitions.
Infrared radiations refers broadly to the part of electromagnetic spectrum between visible and
microwave region. IR spectroscopy is also known as Vibrational spectroscopy.
[Link] the principle involved in IR spectroscopy.
IR spectroscopy is based on the principle of Absorption if Infrared light. When the frequency
of the IR radiation is equal to the natural frequency of vibration. The molecule absorb IR
radiation and a peak is absorbed.
Every bond or portion of a molecule or functional group requires different frequency for
absorption.
Applied infrared frequency = Natural frequency of vibration.

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[Link] the types of Vibrations.

i. Stretching vibration.
- Symmetrical stretching.
- Asymmetrical stretching.
ii. Bending vibrations.
- In-plane bending.
• Scissoring.
• Rocking.
- Out-of-plane bending.
• Wagging.
• Twisting.
[Link] the factors influencing vibrational frequency.
i. Symmetry.
ii. Fermi resonance.
iii. Hydrogen bonding.
iv. Electronic effect.
v. Bond angle.
vi. Coupled vibration.
[Link] Fermi resonance.
Interaction can takes place between fundamental vibrations and overtones or combination of
tone vibrations and such interactions are known as Fermi resonance.
Fermi resonance is the shifting of the energies and intensities of the adsorption bands in an IR
spectrum or a Raman spectrum.
[Link] the solid sample handling techniques in IR spectroscopy.
i. Solids run in solution.
ii. Solid films.
iii. Mull technique.
iv. Pressed pellet technique.
[Link] the instrumentation of IR spectroscopy.
i. Source of radiation.
ii. Wavelength selectors.
- Prism and grating.
- Monochromator.
iii. Sample cells and sample substance.
iv. Detectors.
- Golay cell.
- Bolometer.
- Thermocouple.
- Thermistor.
v. Recorders.

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[Link] the application of IR spectroscopy.

i. Used for identification of drug substances.
ii. Identification of functional group and structural elucidation.
iii. Identifying impurities in drug sample.
iv. Detect of purity of water.
v. Qualitative and Quantitative sample of unknown sample.
vi. To measure environmental pollutants.
[Link] Flame photometry.
Flame photometry is the type of analysis technique which used to determine the concentration
and quality of metal such as Na+, Ca+, K, Li by measuring the intensity of light emitted when
a metal is introduced into flame.
It is also called as Flame Emission spectroscopy.
[Link] the principle used in Flame photometry.
The principle of flame photometry is based on the measurement of the emitted light intensity
when a metal is introduced into the flame. The wavelength of the colour gives information
about the amount of the element present in the sample. The compounds of the alkali and
alkaline earth metals dissociate into atoms when introduced into the flame.
OR
Liquid sample → Formation of droplets → Fine residue → Formation of neutral atoms →
Excitation of atoms by thermal energy → Emission of radiation of specific wavelength → λ
and intensity of emitted radiation measured.
[Link] the process for Flame photometry.
i. Desolvation.
ii. Vaporization.
iii. Atomization.
iv. Excitation of elements.
v. Emission.
[Link] the instrumentation of Flame photometry.
i. Sample delivery system.
ii. Source of flame.
iii. Monochromator.
iv. Detector.
v. Read out device.
[Link] the applications of Flame photometry.
i. Useful for the determination of various element, alkali and alkaline earth metal.
ii. Determine sodium, potassium, calcium from body contents such as plasma, serum,
urine.
iii. Blood, urine kidney stone, animal Biles are determined.

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iv. Analysis of industrial and natural water for determining the elements responsible for
hard water.
v. Determination of metals like lead, manganese in petroleum products like gasoline,
lubricating oils and organic solvents.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Flame photometry.
Advantages:
i. Simple process.
ii. Inexpensive.
iii. Earth elements can be determined.
iv. Quick process.
Disadvantages:
i. Low accuracy.
ii. More time consuming.
iii. Higher operating cost.
iv. Obtained difficult to accurate results.
15. Enlist the different types of Interference used in Flame photometry.
i. Spectral interference.
ii. Chemical interference.
- Cation-cation interference.
- Cation-anion interference.
iii. Ionization interference.
[Link] Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy is a Spectro analytical procedure for the quantitative
determination of chemical elements using the absorption of optical radiation by free atoms in
the gaseous state.
It is based on absorption of light by free metallic ions.
[Link] the principle involved in Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
The principle of atomic absorption spectroscopy is based on the free atoms generated in
atomizer which absorb radiation at specific frequency. It quantifies the absorption of ground
state atoms in the gaseous state absorbs UV or visible light and make transitions to higher
energy levels.
It is based on absorption phenomenon.
[Link] the Interferences used in Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Interferences is a phenomenon that leads to change in intensity of analyte signal in
spectroscopy.
i. Non spectral interferences-Affect the formation of analyte items.
ii. Spectral interferences-High light absorption due to presence of absorbing apecies.

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- Matrix interferences.
- Chemical interferences.
- Ionization interferences.
[Link] the instrumentation of Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
i. Hollow cathode lamp.
ii. Beam chopper.
iii. Source of light.
iv. Nebulizer.
v. Monochromator.
vi. Detector.
vii. Read out device.
[Link] the application of Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
i. Determination of metallic elements in biological materials.
ii. Determination of metallic elements in food industry.
iii. Determination of calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium in blood serum.
iv. Determination of trace elements in artificial fibres.
v. Determination of poisons.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Advantages:
i. High selectivity and sensitivity.
ii. Working is simple and fast.
iii. It does not need separation of metals.
Disadvantages:
i. Simultaneous analysis is not possible.
ii. It cannot be used for elements that give rise to oxides in flames.
iii. Expensive.
[Link] Nepheloturbidimetry.
Nephelometry and Turbidimetry methods are depends on the scattering of light by particle
suspended in a liquid. The suspended particles have refractive index values different from the
suspending medium. The overall mimics Tyndall effect.
[Link] the factors affecting the light scattering.
i. Particle size.
ii. Wavelength.
iii. Distance of observation.
iv. Concentration of particles.
v. Molecular weight of particles.
vi. Polarization of incident light.

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[Link] the principle involved in Nephelometry.

Measurement of the intensity of the scattered light as a function of concentration of the
dispersed phase forms the basis of nephelometric analysis.
The amount of radiations scattered by the particles is measured at an angle 90˚ to the incident
medium.
[Link] the principle involved in Turbidimetry.
Measurement of the intensity of the transmitted light as a function of the concentration of
suspended particles forms the basis of turbidimetric analysis.
The amount of radiation transmitted by the particles is measured at an angle of 180˚ to the
incident medium.
[Link] between Nephelometry and Turbidimetry.
[Link] Nephelometry Turbidimetry
1. Measures light which is scattered. Measures light which passes through.
2. Not affected by the size and Affected by the size and concentration.
concentration.
3. More sensitive. Less sensitive.
4. Scattering is uniform. Scattering is not uniform.
5. Measured at 90˚ Measured at 180˚
[Link] the Instrumentation of Nepheloturbidimetry.
i. Source of light.
ii. Filter and Monochromator.
iii. Sample cell.
iv. Detector.
- Photomultiplier tube.
- Photovoltaic cell.
[Link] the application of Nepheloturbidimetry.
i. Analysis of water.
ii. Determination of carbon dioxide.
iii. Determination of inorganic substances like phosphorous, ammonia sulphate etc.
iv. Biochemical analysis.
v. Quantitative analysis.
vi. Analysis of petroleum products, sugar products and clarity of citric juices.
vii. In turbidimetric titration.
[Link] the light source used in Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Hollow cathode lamp are the most common light source used in Atomic absorption
spectroscopy. It contains a tungsten anode and a hollow cylindrical cathode.
These are sealed in a glass tube filled with an inert gas (mainly neon or argon). Each elements
have its own unique lamp which must be used for that analysis.

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[Link] the light source used in IR spectroscopy.

i. Nernst glower.
ii. Incandescent lamp.
iii. Mercury arc.
iv. Tungsten lamp.
v. Glober source.
vi. Nichrome wire.
[Link] is Fingerprint region?
The region from 400 cm-1 to 1500cm-1 in an IR spectrum is known as the fingerprint region.
It usually contains a large number of peaks, making it difficult to identify individual peaks.
However, the fingerprint region of a given compound is unique and therefore can be used to
identify or distinguish between compounds by observing/overlaying the sample spectrum with
standard molecule spectrum.
[Link] are the sampling techniques used in IR spectroscopy?
i. Sampling of solids.
- Solid run in solution.
- Solid films.
- Mull technique.
- Pressed pellet technique.
ii. Sampling of liquids.
- Sandwich technique.
- Liquid sample cell.
iii. Sampling of gases.
[Link] the detectors used in IR spectrophotometer.
i. Thermal detector.
ii. Thermocouple/Thermopile.
iii. Thermistor (Bolometer).
iv. Golay pneumatic detector.
v. Pyroelectric detector.
vi. Photo conducting detector.
[Link] the light source and detectors used in Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Light source: Hollow cathode lamp.
Detectors: Photo multiplier tube.
[Link] the fuel gases used in flame emission spectroscopy.
i. Acetylene.
ii. Propane.
iii. Hydrogen.
iv. Argon-hydrogen.

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[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Nepheloturbidimetry.

Advantages:
i. Very rapid procedure.
ii. Simplicity in measurement.
iii. High accurate.
Disadvantages:
i. High cost.
ii. Easily damaged.
iii. Require high power supply.
iv. Used for lower concentration.
[Link] Functional group region.
Functional group region also called as group frequency region is generally considered to range
from 4000cm-1to approximately 1500cm-1.
Most of the information that is used to interpret an IR spectrum is obtained from the functional
group region. The information about presence or absence of particular function group is
obtained by observing peaks in functional group region.
[Link] the term Stretching vibration and give its types.
The movement of atoms involving change in bond length between two bonded atom is called
stretching vibration.
Types:
i. Symmetric vibration.
ii. Asymmetric vibration.
[Link] why a thermal detector is not suitable for use in an FTIR instrument.
Thermal detectors like golay cell, bolometer, thermopile was common in early scanning IR
spectrometers. However, the response time of thermal detectors is too slow for use in a modern
FTIR spectrometer.
[Link] can you tell the difference between aldehyde and ketones in IR.
The aldehyde and ketone can be differentiated by IR spectroscopy. In both aldehyde and ketone
is very prominent c=o stretch peak will be observed around 1700cm-1 area.
But in the aldehydes, we see a peaks around 2850 and 2750cm-1. The presence of these peaks
along with a carbonyl peak is a good indication that you have an aldehyde.
[Link] the regions of flame.
i. Preheating zone.
ii. Primary reaction zone.
iii. Interconal zone.
iv. Secondary reaction zone.

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[Link] the burners used in Flame photometry.

i. Mecker burner.
ii. Total consumption burner.
iii. Laminar flow burner.
[Link] Bending vibration and mention its types.
The movement of non-bonded atoms involving change in bond angle between is called as
bending vibration.
Types:
i. In-plane vibration.
ii. Out-plane vibration.
[Link] Scissoring and Rocking.
Scissoring- Two non-bonded atoms (Attached to central atom) come towards each other or go
away from each other with change in angle between them (scissor like action).
Rocking- Two non-bonded atoms (attached to central atom) move towards either side with
change in angle between them.
[Link] the oxidants used in Flame photometry.
i. Air.
ii. Oxygen.
iii. Nitrous oxide.
[Link] the role of atomiser in Atomic absorption spectroscopy.
Atomiser is used to generate the vapours of analyte which get excited by the thermal energy of
the flame and then emit characteristic radiation that is measured.
It consist of two components:
i. Nebulizer.
ii. Burner.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Total consumption burner.
Advantages:
i. Representative sample reaches the flame.
ii. Amount of sample in flame is large which enhance sensitivity.
iii. No explosive hazards.
Disadvantages:
i. Short path leads to lower sensitivity.
ii. Large droplets not entirely decomposed.
iii. Rate of sample introduction is depends upon viscosity.

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UNIT-3
[Link] Chromatography.
Chromatography is defined as the separation technique for separating mixtures into their
components by using two phases i.e., stationary phase and mobile phase. It is used to analyse,
identify, purify and quantify the mixture or components.
[Link] the classification of Chromatographic techniques.
i. Based on nature of stationary phase and mobile phase.
• Gas-Solid chromatography.
• Gas-Liquid chromatography.
• Solid-Liquid chromatography.
• Liquid-Liquid chromatography.
ii. Based on principle of separation.
• Adsorption chromatography.
• Partition chromatography.
iii. Based on modes of chromatography.
• Normal phase chromatography.
• Reverse phase chromatography.
[Link] the components of Chromatography.
i. Stationary phase: Fixed phase through which the sample components move at different
rates.
ii. Mobile phase: The moving phase that carries the sample through the stationary phase.
[Link] Adsorption Chromatography and classify it.
Adsorption chromatography involve separation of a chemical mixture based on the interaction
of the adsorbate with the adsorbent. The stationary phase in the adsorption chromatography is
called as Adsorbent.
Types:
i. Column chromatography.
ii. Thin layer chromatography.
iii. Gas solid chromatography.
[Link] the principle involved in Adsorption chromatography.
Adsorption chromatography involves the analytical separation of a chemical mixture by
passing it over an adsorbent bed that absorbs different compounds on different rates. Solute in
liquid phase interacts with adsorption sites on solid surface.
[Link] Partition chromatography.
Partition chromatography is defined as the separation of component from mixture by passing
them into column which contains stationary phase and mobile phase. It is also called as
liquid-liquid chromatography.

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Types:
i. Liquid-Liquid chromatography.
ii. Gas-Liquid chromatography.
[Link] Column chromatography.
Column chromatography is used for the separation and purification of both solids and liquids.
It separates substances based on the differential adsorption of compounds to the adsorbent as
the compounds move through the column at different rates which allow them to get separated
in fractions. This is solid-liquid technique in which the stationary phase is solid and mobile
phase is liquid.
[Link] the different types of Column chromatography.
i. Adsorption column chromatography.
ii. Partition column chromatography.
iii. Gel column chromatography.
iv. Ion exchange column chromatography.
[Link] the ideal requirements for ideal stationary phase.
i. They should be insoluble in solvents or mobile phase.
ii. They should be chemically inert.
iii. They should be colourless to facilitate observation of zones.
iv. They should have reproducible properties from batch to batch.
v. The particle should have uniform size distribution.
[Link] the factors affecting column efficiency.
i. Column packing.
ii. Particle size of the adsorbent.
iii. Dimension of the column.
iv. Nature of the Solvents.
v. Flow rate.
vi. Temperature of the column.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Column chromatography.
Advantages:
i. Any type of mixture can be separated by column chromatography.
ii. Any quantity of the mixture can also be separated.
iii. Wider choice of mobile phase.
iv. In preparative type, the sample can be separated and reused.
v. Automation is possible.
Disadvantages:
i. Time consuming method.
ii. More amount of solvents are required which are expensive.
iii. Automation makes the technique more complicated and expensive.

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[Link] the application of Column chromatography.

i. Separation of mixture of compounds.
ii. Removal of impurities or purification process.
iii. Isolation of active constituents.
iv. Isolation of metabolites from biological fluids.
v. Estimation of drugs in formulation or crude extracts.
[Link] TLC.
Thin layer chromatography is defined as the qualitative and quantitative analysis to separate
organic compounds and also to check the purity of the compounds. It is defined as a method of
separation or identification of a mixture of components into individual components by use of
finely divided adsorbent (solid or liquid) spread over a glass plate and liquid as a mobile phase.
[Link] the principle involved in TLC.
It is based on the principle of adsorption chromatography or partition chromatography or
combination of both, also depends on adsorbent, its treatment and nature of solvents.
Components with more affinity towards stationary phase travels slower. Components with less
affinity towards stationary phase travels faster.
[Link] are the system components of TLC?
i. TLC plates.
ii. TLC chamber.
iii. Mobile phase.
iv. A filter paper.
[Link] the different steps involved in operating TLC.
i. Selection of adsorbents.
ii. Preparation of chromatoplates.
iii. Activation of adsorbent layer.
iv. Purification of silica gel G layers.
v. Application of sample.
vi. Selection of development chamber.
vii. Selection of solvent system.
viii. Selection of development technique.
ix. Location of spots.
x. Evaluation of chromatogram.
- Quantitative evaluation.
- Qualitative evaluation.
[Link] the different methods used for the preparation of plates.
i. Pouring method.
ii. Dipping method.
iii. Spraying method.
iv. Spreading method.

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[Link] Rf value. How it is determined.

Rf value stands for Retardation factor value. Rf value is the ratio of the solute travelled by the
solute to the distance travelled by the solvent front.
Rf= Distance travelled by the solute
Distance travelled by the solvent front.
Determination:
i. Develop a chromatogram (separate compounds using chromatography).
ii. Measure the distance from the origin to the centre of the compounds spot.
iii. Measure the distance from the origin to the solvent front.
iv. Calculate the Rf value using the formula.
[Link] the factors affecting Rf value.
i. Nature adsorbent.
ii. Mobile phase.
iii. Thickness of layer.
iv. Temperature.
v. Equilibrium.
vi. Loading.
vii. Dipping zone.
viii. Chromatographic techniques.
[Link] the criteria for Selection of adsorbents.
i. Solubility of compound.
ii. Nature of the substance to be separated.
iii. Adsorbent particle size.
iv. Adsorbent should not adhere to glass plate.
v. Reactivity of the compound with the solvent or the adsorbent.
vi. Chemical reactivity of compounds with binders.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of TLC.
Advantages:
i. Easily visualize.
ii. Easy to analyse.
iii. Inexpensive.
iv. Quicker.
v. Several compounds can easily get isolated through TLC.
Disadvantages:
i. Plate length is limited.
ii. The separation takes place in an open system.
iii. Lack of resolution.
iv. Poor sensitivity.

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v. The result generated from TLC are difficult to reproduce.

[Link] the application of TLC.
i. Separation of the components from mixture.
ii. Used in cosmetic industry.
iii. Quantitative analysis.
iv. Biochemical analysis.
v. Used in pharmaceutical industry.
vi. Purification of sample.
[Link] Paper chromatography.
Paper chromatography is defined as the technique in which the analysis of unknown substances
is carried out mainly by the flow of solvents on specially designed filter paper.
Paper chromatography is most widely used for the chromatographic techniques because it is
applicably to isolation, identification and quantitative determination of organic and inorganic
compounds.
[Link] the types of Paper chromatography.
i. Based on principle:
- Paper partition chromatography.
- Paper adsorption chromatography.
ii. Based on solvent movement:
- Ascending paper chromatography.
- Descending paper chromatography.
- Ascending-Descending paper chromatography.
- Radial paper chromatography.
- Two-dimensional chromatography.
[Link] the procedure to perform paper chromatography.
i. Selection a suitable type of development.
ii. Selection a suitable filter paper.
iii. Sample preparation.
iv. Spotting of sample.
v. Chromatogram development.
vi. Drying of paper and compound detection.
[Link] the paper used in paper chromatography.
i. Pure cellulose paper.
ii. Modified cellulose paper.
iii. Glass fibre type papers.
[Link] the factors affecting Rf value in Paper chromatography.
i. Solvent system.
ii. Temperature.
iii. Quality of paper, direction of fibres.

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iv. Distance through which solvent runs.

v. Quality of water.
vi. Method of development.
vii. Concentration of separated substance.
viii. Size of tank and saturation.
ix. Method of drying.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Paper chromatography.
Advantages:
i. Requires less time in separation.
ii. Requires a small amount of sample for analysis.
iii. Very convenient to use.
iv. Need small space for setup installation.
v. Simple and rapid.
Disadvantages:
i. Can not be used to separate volatile substances.
ii. Not compatible with large amount of sample.
iii. Cannot separate complex mixture.
iv. Have less accuracy as compared to HPLC or HPTLC.
[Link] the application of Paper chromatography.
i. Used for separation of organic compounds.
ii. Used to separate biochemical products.
iii. Used to study inorganic metallic salts.
iv. Used to study of complex ions.
v. Used for analysis of mixture of sugar.
vi. Study of ripening and fermentation.
vii. Used in analysis of cosmetics.
[Link] Electrophoresis.
Electrophoresis is defined as the migration of the charged particle through a solution under the
influence of an external electrical field. Ions that are suspended between two electrodes tends
to travel towards the electrodes that bears opposite charges.
[Link] the factors affecting Electrophoresis.
i. Nature of charge.
ii. Voltages.
iii. Frictional force.
iv. Electrophoretic mobility.
v. Current.
vi. Electroendosmosis.
[Link] the types of Electrophoresis.
i. Zone electrophoresis.

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- Paper electrophoresis.
- Gel electrophoresis.
- Cellulose acetate electrophoresis.
- Thin layer electrophoresis.
ii. Moving boundary electrophoresis.
- Capillary electrophoresis.
- Isoelectric electrophoresis.
- Isotachophoresis.
- Immuno electrophoresis.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Electrophoresis.
Advantages:
i. Easy to prepare and small concentration of agar is used.
ii. Resolution is superior to that of filter paper.
iii. Large quantities of proteins can be separated and recovered.
Disadvantages:
i. Electro osmosis is high.
ii. Resolution is less compared to poly acrylamide gels.
iii. Different sources and batches of agar tend to give different results and purification is
often necessary.
[Link] the application of electrophoresis.
i. Separation of DNA and RNA.
ii. Separation of amino acids and protein molecules.
iii. Separation of antibiotics.
iv. Separation of enzymes and lipoproteins.
v. Used in determination of purity.
vi. Used in Forensic study.
[Link] Zone electrophoresis.
It involves the migration of the charged particle on the supporting media. Some the examples
are paper, cellulose acetate membrane, starch gel and poly acrylamide. Components separated
are distributed into discrete zone on the support media.
Support media is saturated with buffer solution, small volume of the sample is applied on
narrow band.
[Link] Electrophoresis media and its types.
The solid materials and the buffer solution which favour the separation of solute particle is
called electrophoresis media.
Types:
i. Buffers.
ii. Supporting media

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- Paper contains about 95%cellulose.

- Cellulose acetate.
- Starch.
- Agarose.
- Polyacrylamide gel.

[Link] Paper electrophoresis. Classify it.

It is a type of electrophoresis in which paper strip or cellulose acetate membrane is used as a
separating medium. Paper electrophoresis is used for the separation of small charged molecules
such as amino acids and small protein using a strip of paper.
Types:
i. Horizontal type paper electrophoresis.
ii. Vertical type paper electrophoresis.
iii. Continuous paper electrophoresis.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Paper electrophoresis.
Advantages:
i. It is simple and inexpensive.
ii. Easily available.
iii. Easy to handle.
Disadvantages:
i. Certain compounds like proteins, hydrophilic molecules cannot be resolved because of
adsorptive and property of paper.
ii. It results in tailing and distortion of component bands.
iii. Electro osmosis flow may occur.
[Link] the application of paper electrophoresis.
i. Used for separation of blood clotting factor and serum plasma protein from blood
sample.
ii. Used in separation and identification of alkaloids.
iii. Used in forensics.
iv. Used in drug testing industry.
v. Used in the separation of biomolecules in a solution.
[Link] Gel electrophoresis. Classify it.
Gel electrophoresis involves the use of gel as a supporting media for separation of DNA, RNA
and proteins under the influence of electric charge.
Types:
i. Agarose gel electrophoresis.
ii. Starch gel electrophoresis.

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iii. Poly acryl amide gel electrophoresis.

[Link] the application of Agarose gel electrophoresis.
i. Used for the estimation of the size of DNA.
ii. Used for the estimation of the DNA concentration by comparing the intensity of the
nucleic acid band with the corresponding band of the size marker.
iii. For analysing the products of a polymerase chain reaction in molecular genetic
diagnosis.
iv. Used for DNA fingerprinting.
v. Used in separation of DNA fragments used for extraction and purification.
[Link] the application of SDS-PAGE electrophoresis.
i. Estimation of protein size.
ii. Measuring molecular weight.
iii. Monitoring protein integrity.
iv. Estimation of protein purity.
v. Protein quantitation.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Agarose gel electrophoresis.
Advantages:
i. Easy to prepare and small concentration of agar is required.
ii. Resolution is superior to that of filter paper.
iii. Large quantities of proteins can be separated and recovered.
Disadvantages:
i. Electro osmosis is high.
ii. Resolution is less as compared to poly acryl amide gels.
iii. Different sources and batches of agar tend to give different results and purification is
often necessary.
[Link] Capillary electrophoresis.
Capillary electrophoresis is a separation method based on differential rates of migration of
charged species in an applied electric field. This type of electrophoresis makes the use of a
capillary tube or narrow bore tube.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Capillary electrophoresis.
Advantages:
i. Short analysis time.
ii. Low sample.
iii. Low waste generation.
iv. High separation efficiency.
Disadvantages:
i. Low concentration and large volume difficult.

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ii. Increased diffusion.

iii. Resolution is always not proper.
[Link] the application of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
i. Used for the separation and purification of DNAs and protein in biological samples.
ii. Used to separate proteins based on charge, but not mass.
iii. Used to determine the molecular weight of proteins and DNAs.
iv. Used for PCR.
v. Used for DNA sequencing.
[Link] Agarose gel electrophoresis and write any 2 applications.
The separation of molecules based on their charges and size using agarose gel as a supporting
medium is called as agarose gel electrophoresis.
Applications.
i. Used for separation of DNA fragments in a sample.
ii. Used to detect the purity of DNA fragments.
iii. Used in the separation of proteins in a solution.
[Link] Poly acryl amide electrophoresis and write any 2 applications.
The separation of molecules based on their charges and size using poly acryl amide gel as a
separating medium, is called as polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis.
Applications:
i. Estimation of protein size.
ii. Used for PCR.
iii. Used for DNA sequencing.
[Link] SDS-Poly acryl amide gel electrophoresis and write any 2 applications.
It is a separation of molecules based on size using polyacrylamide gel as a separating medium
and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) as a detergent to neutralize the charge of proteins, is called
as SDS-PAGE.
Applications:
i. Used to separate proteins based on their mass and size.
ii. Used in peptide mapping.
iii. Used to determine the molecular weight of proteins.
[Link] is silica gel GF?
Silica gel GF is a high-purity silica gel used for thin-layer chromatography. It is used as a
stationary phase to separate non-volatile compounds in a mixture. Silica gel is a porous,
amorphous form of silicon dioxide that is made up of a network of interconnected microscopic
pores.
Silica gel is used in TLC because its active surface is made up of silanol groups, strongly binds
polar groups.

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[Link] is tailing peak and fronting peak?

Tailing peak- Tailing is due to more active adsorption sites and can be eliminated by support
pretreatment.
Fronting peak-Fronting is due to saturation of stationary phase and can be avoided by using
less quantity of sample.
[Link] is HETP?
HETP-Height equivalent to a theoretical plate.
It is a measure of column efficiency in chromatography. It refers to the height of a section of
the column that would give the same separation as a theoretical plate. A lower HETP value
indicates better separation efficiency.
HETP=Length of the column/Number of theoretical plates.
[Link] is ODS?
ODS-Octa decyl silane.
It is a common non-polar stationary phase in reverse phase chromatography. It consist of C18
chains attached to silica, ideal for separating non-polar molecules like hydrocarbons.
[Link] is Normal phase chromatography?
Normal phase chromatography is a type of chromatographic separation technique used in
analytical chemistry to separate the compounds based on their polarity. In normal phase
chromatography the stationary phase is polar, while the mobile phase is non-polar.
[Link] is capacity factor?
Capacity factor is defined as the measure of an analyte in chromatography, calculated as where
is analyte retention time and is the time for as unretained compound.
[Link] is edge effect?
The edge effect occurs in chromatography when analytes near the edges of a column travel
differently, often due to uneven packing, affecting resolution and retention.
[Link] Reverse phase chromatography?
Reverse phase chromatography is a type of liquid chromatography where the stationary phase
is non-polar and the mobile phase is polar. In this technique the sample components are
separated based on their hydrophobicity.
In RPC, non-polar analytes interact with the stationary phase, while polar analytes elute faster.
[Link] tailing effect?
The tailing effect in chromatography refers to the asymmetric shape of the peak where the tail
end is longer than the leading edge. This usually occurs due to incomplete interaction between
the analyte and the stationary phase or due to the contamination in the column

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[Link] any 2 application of gel electrophoresis.

i. Used to detect the purity of DNA fragments.
ii. Used to determine the size of DNA fragments.
iii. Used in the separation of a proteins in a solution.
[Link] the advantages of TLC.
i. Simple method and less expensive.
ii. Rapid technique.
iii. Detection is easy.
iv. Needs less solvent, stationary phase and time.
v. Any type of compounds can be analysed.
[Link] is Isocratic elution?
A separation that employs a single solvent or solvent mixture of solvent of constant
composition. If a solvent or mixture of solvent, having fixed composition and fixed polarity is
used pumped through out the overall analytical procedure, then it is called as isocratic elution.
[Link] is retention time?
Retention time is the time taken by a specific compound to travel through a chromatography
column and be detected by the detector. It is used to identify and quantify compounds in
chromatography.
[Link] is HETP? How it is related to number of theoretical plates and length of column?
HETP-Height equivalent to a theoretical plate.
It is a measure of column efficiency in chromatography. It refers to the height of a section of
the column that would give the same separation as a theoretical plate. A lower HETP value
indicates better separation efficiency.
Relationship between HETP, Number of theoretical plate and length of the column.
i. Lower HETP values indicate higher column efficiency.
ii. Increasing the length of the column can increase N, but also increases HETP.
iii. Optimising column dimensions and conditions can minimize the HETP.
[Link] the 2 grades of paper used in paper chromatography.
Whatman number 1: A commonly used filter paper with a medium absorption rate.
Whatman number 3MM: Thicker paper used for higher capacity and more detailed separations.
[Link] between isocratic elution and gradient elution in chromatography.
S.N Isocratic elution Gradient elution
O
1. Easy to separate. Easier elution of compounds that have a
high affinity for the column.
2. Can be performed with one single pump. Program a rising phase this avoids cross
contamination.

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3. No cleaning of the column between 2 Requires 2 pumps or a solvent distribution

samples. valve.
[Link] is two-dimensional paper chromatography.
In this method the paper is developed in one direction and after development, the paper is
developed in the second direction allowing more compounds to be separated into individual
spots.
[Link] between normal phase and reverse phase chromatography.
[Link] Normal phase chromatography Reverse phase chromatography.
1. A separation method, which allows the The separation method whose mobile
distribution of the components of a phase is more polar than the stationary
mixture between two phases, one of pahse.
which is a polar stationary phase while
the mobile phase is non-polar.
2. Uses apolar stationary phase, which is Uses a non-polar stationary phase, which is
mainly pure silica. a modified silica substrate with long
hydrophobic chains
[Link] the steps involved in chromatography.
i. Prepare the stationary phase.
ii. Spotting the sample.
iii. Preparing the mobile phase.
iv. Placing the paper in the container.
v. Developing the chromatogram.
vi. Analysing the chromatogram.
[Link] are the elution techniques in column chromatography?
i. Isocratic elution- The mobile phase composition remains constant throughout the
separation procedure.
ii. Gradient elution-The mobile phase composition is changed during the separation
process.
[Link] Rf and Rm values and write its significance.
Rf value- Rf value is the distance travelled by the sample and the distance travelled by the
standard.
Significance: Used to compare and help identify the compounds.
Rm value- Rm value is used in qualitative analysis to find out whether the compounds belong
to a homologous series.
[Link] Gradient elution.
In this type of elution, polarity of solvent is changed gradually and slowly. For gradient elution,
there should be two solvent reservoirs, two pumps and one mixturing device.
[Link] some inorganic adsorbents used in thin layer chromatography.

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i. Silica gel: The most common adsorbent, used for the non-polar to moderately polar
compounds.
ii. Alumina: Used for separating basic and acidic compounds.
iii. Magnesium silicate: Often used for separating lipids and other non-polar substances.
iv. Calcium sulphate: Used in specific types of chromatography for separating organic
compounds.
UNIT-4
[Link] gas chromatography and write its types.
Gas chromatography is the chromatographic technique used for the separation and analysis of
volatile compounds based on their partitioning between a stationary liquid phase and a
gaseous mobile phase.
Types:
i. Gas-solid chromatography.
ii. Gas-liquid chromatography.
[Link] the advantages and disadvantages of Gas chromatography.
Advantages:
i. High resolution.
ii. High accuracy and short development time.
iii. Non-destructive to sample.
Disadvantages:
i. Not applicable to thermolabile substances.
ii. Limited to volatile and non-volatile compounds.
iii. Sensitivity to moisture.
[Link] the instrumentation of Gas chromatography.
i. Carrier gas.
ii. Flow regulators and flow meters.
iii. Injection devices.
iv. Columns.
v. Temperature control devices.
vi. Detectors.
vii. Recorders and integrators.
[Link] the detectors used in Gas chromatography.
i. Thermal conductivity detector.
ii. Flame ionisation detector.
iii. Argon ionisation detector.
iv. Electron capture detector.
v. Flame photometric detector
vi. Photo ionisation detector.

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[Link] columns used in Gas chromatography.

A. Based in their uses.
i. Analytical column.
ii. Preparative column.
B. Based on its nature.
i. Packed column.
ii. Open tubular column
iii. Support coated open tubular column.
[Link] the ideal properties of Carrier gas in gas chromatography.
i. Inertness.
ii. Suitable to the detector used.
iii. High purity.
iv. Easily available.
v. Cheap.
[Link] is temperature programming in gas chromatography.
It is process of increasing the column temperature during the run. A temperature program
involves heating of the oven at a controlled rate during the run. It is very effective methods for
optimizing an analysis and is often used for screening new samples.
[Link] Derivatization and classify it.
Derivatization is the process of chemically modifying a compound to produce a new compound
which has properties that are suitable for analysing using a GC or HPLC.
Types:
i. Pre column derivatization.
ii. Post column derivatization.
[Link] the application of Gas chromatography.
i. Used in qualitative and quantitative analysis.
ii. Food testing.
iii. Drugs testing.
iv. Forensics testing.
v. Measuring of toxic substances in soil, air and water.

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