KABARAK UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF MEDICINE AND HEALTH SCIENCES
DEPARTMENT OF CLINICAL MEDICINE
UNIT CODE: BCM 124
BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES AND ETHICS
CLM/M/1225/09/23
DR. ALICE MARAGA
18TH MARCH 2024
BRUNNER’S THEORY OF CONSTRUCTIVISM
Brunner’s theory on constructivism encompasses the idea of learning as an active process
wherein those learning can form new ideas based on what their current knowledge is as well as
their past knowledge. (Constrcutivism Theory, 2018)
Brunner's Theory of Constructivism, often associated with the work of Jerome Bruner, is a
psychological theory that emphasizes the active role of learners in constructing their
understanding and knowledge of the world. This theory challenges traditional views of learning
as passive absorption of information and instead posits that learners actively build new
knowledge and understanding through their experiences, interactions, and reflections.
Jerome Bruner, an influential cognitive psychologist, proposed several key ideas within his
constructivist framework:
Spiral Curriculum: Bruner advocated for a spiral curriculum, which is a curriculum design that
revisits topics at increasing levels of complexity over time. In this approach, learners encounter
key concepts multiple times, each time with deeper understanding and elaboration. This spiral
progression allows learners to continually build upon their prior knowledge and scaffold new
learning.
Discovery Learning: Bruner emphasized the importance of discovery learning, where learners
actively explore and experiment to construct new knowledge. He argued that meaningful
learning occurs when learners are actively engaged in problem-solving and inquiry, rather than
passively receiving information. Discovery learning encourages critical thinking, problem-
solving skills, and a deeper understanding of concepts.
Scaffolding: Bruner introduced the concept of scaffolding, which refers to the support provided
by more knowledgeable individuals to help learners accomplish tasks or solve problems
beyond their current abilities. Scaffolding involves breaking down complex tasks into smaller,
more manageable steps, providing guidance and feedback as needed, and gradually
withdrawing support as learners develop competence. This process allows learners to achieve
higher levels of understanding and skill through guided participation in meaningful activities.
Modes of Representation: Bruner highlighted the importance of different modes of
representation in learning, including symbolic, iconic, and enactive representations. Symbolic
representations involve language and abstract symbols, iconic representations involve visual
images or diagrams, and enactive representations involve physical actions or experiences.
Bruner argued that providing multiple modes of representation can help learners grasp abstract
concepts more effectively and facilitate deeper understanding.
Narrative and Storytelling: Bruner also emphasized the role of narrative and storytelling in
learning. He suggested that narrative structures are fundamental to human cognition and can
be used to organize and make sense of information. By framing information within a narrative
context, educators can help learners construct meaning and retain knowledge more effectively.
ASSUMPTIONS OF BEHAVIORISM
Behaviourism, as a psychological theory, is based on several fundamental assumptions about
human behaviour. Three of the basic assumptions of behaviourism are:
Observable Behaviour: Behaviourists focus on observable behaviour’s rather than internal
mental processes. This means that they are more concerned with what can be directly seen and
measured, such as actions, reactions, and responses to stimuli. Internal thoughts, emotions,
and feelings are not considered relevant in behaviourist analysis because they cannot be
directly observed or measured.
Environmental Determinism: Behaviourists believe that behaviour is primarily determined by
the environment, including external stimuli and reinforcement. According to this assumption,
individuals learn and develop behaviours through interactions with their environment.
Behaviourists emphasize the role of conditioning, both classical (Pavlovian) and operant
(Skinnerian), in shaping and modifying behaviour. In other words, behaviour is seen as a result
of environmental influences rather than internal traits or predispositions.
Empirical Approach: Behaviourism emphasizes the importance of empirical evidence and
experimental methods in studying behaviour. This assumption aligns with the scientific method,
which emphasizes observation, experimentation, and verification. Behaviourists rely on
controlled experiments to test hypotheses and theories about behaviour. They seek to identify
consistent patterns of behaviour and principles of learning that can be generalized across
different contexts and individuals. (C, 2019)
SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
(Lim, 2024)These are the rules that determine how often an organism is reinforced for a
particular behaviour. The pattern of reinforcement has an impact on the pattern of responding
to. A schedule of reinforcement is a component of operant conditioning (also known as in
instrumental conditioning). It consists of an arrangement to determine when to reinforce
behaviour. For example, whether to reinforce in relation to time or number of responses.
TYPES OF SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENTS
Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behaviour is strengthened or weakened by
the consequences that follow it. A schedule of reinforcement refers to the pattern or frequency
with which reinforcements are delivered following a specific behaviour. There are four primary
types of schedules of reinforcement:
Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule: In a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is delivered after a fixed
number of responses. For example, in an FR-5 schedule, reinforcement is provided every fifth
response. This schedule often leads to high response rates, as individuals tend to increase their
behaviour as they approach the required number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR) Schedule: In a variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is delivered after an
average number of responses, but the exact number varies unpredictably. For instance, in a VR-
5 schedule, reinforcement might be given after 3 responses, then after 7, then after 5, and so
on. Variable ratio schedules typically produce high and steady response rates, as individuals are
motivated to continue responding in anticipation of reinforcement, which can come at any time.
Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule: In a fixed interval schedule, reinforcement is delivered for the first
response emitted after a fixed interval of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement. For
example, in an FI-10 schedule, reinforcement is given for the first response made after 10
minutes have passed since the last reinforcement. Response rates tend to increase as the
reinforcement time approaches, then drop off immediately after reinforcement and gradually
increase again as the time for reinforcement nears.
Variable Interval (VI) Schedule: In a variable interval schedule, reinforcement is delivered for the
first response made after an average interval of time has elapsed, but the exact timing varies
unpredictably. For instance, in a VI-10 schedule, reinforcement might be given for the first
response after 8 minutes, then after 12 minutes, then after 9 minutes, and so forth. Variable
interval schedules tend to produce steady response rates, as individuals are not sure exactly
when reinforcement will be available, but they know it will occur eventually.
ALBERT BANDURA SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
Albert Bandura's social learning theory, also known as social cognitive theory, emphasizes the
importance of observing, modelling, and imitating the behaviour’s, attitudes, and emotional
reactions of others. Here's an analysis of key components and implications of his theory:
Observational Learning: Bandura proposed that much of human learning occurs through
observation of others in social contexts. Individuals observe the behaviour of others, the
consequences of those behaviours, and incorporate this information into their own behavioural
repertoire. This process is not limited to direct reinforcement but also involves vicarious
reinforcement, where individuals observe the consequences of others' actions and adjust their
behaviour accordingly.
Modelling: Central to Bandura's theory is the concept of modelling, where individuals learn by
imitating the behaviour of role models. These models can be people in the immediate
environment (such as parents, peers, or teachers) or symbolic models portrayed in media (such
as characters in movies or television shows). Bandura highlighted that individuals are more
likely to imitate behaviours of models whom they perceive as similar to themselves, respected,
or possessing desirable characteristics.
Cognitive Processes: Bandura emphasized the role of cognitive processes in learning, such as
attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Attention involves actively observing and
paying attention to the model's behaviour. Retention refers to the ability to remember the
observed behaviour. Reproduction involves the ability to replicate the observed behaviour.
Motivation plays a crucial role in determining whether the observed behaviour will be imitated
or not, influenced by factors such as reinforcement, punishment, and perceived outcomes.
Self-efficacy: Bandura introduced the concept of self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's
belief in their own capability to successfully perform a specific task or behaviour. Self-efficacy
influences how individuals approach challenges, persevere in the face of obstacles, and set
goals. Bandura suggested that self-efficacy beliefs are developed through mastery experiences,
vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and physiological states.
Reciprocal Determinism: Bandura proposed reciprocal determinism, which suggests that
behaviour, environment, and personal factors (such as thoughts, beliefs, and emotions) interact
with and influence each other bidirectionally. This concept highlights the dynamic interplay
between individuals and their environment, emphasizing that individuals are both influenced by
and exert influence on their surroundings.
Applications and Implications: Bandura's social learning theory has been applied in various
fields, including education, psychology, and communication. In education, it suggests the
importance of providing positive role models and creating opportunities for observational
learning. In therapy, it underlines the significance of modelling positive behaviours and beliefs
to promote behaviour change. In media studies, it highlights the potential impact of media
portrayals on audience behaviour and attitudes. (Bandura, 2024)
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. It
was first described by Ivan Pavlov in his experiments with dogs, hence it is sometimes referred
to as Pavlovian conditioning. Here are some key points to note about classical conditioning:
Key Players: Ivan Pavlov is credited with the initial discovery of classical conditioning through his
experiments with dogs. Later, researchers such as John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner further
developed the theory.
Basic Concept: Classical conditioning involves learning to associate an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) that produces an unconditioned response (UCR) with a neutral stimulus (NS). Through
repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a
conditioned response (CR) similar to the UCR.
Components:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior
learning.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The automatic response to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Initially neutral, but after being paired with the UCS, it triggers a
conditioned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS, similar to the UCR.
Acquisition: This is the initial learning stage in classical conditioning when the NS is repeatedly
paired with the UCS. The strength and frequency of the CR typically increase with more pairings.
Extinction: If the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS, the CR weakens and eventually
disappears. This process is known as extinction.
Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of extinction, if the CS is presented again, the CR may
reappear, albeit weaker than before.
Generalization: Once an association is formed between the CS and the UCS, similar stimuli to
the CS can also trigger the CR. This is known as stimulus generalization.
Discrimination: Discrimination occurs when an organism learns to distinguish between a
conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli that do not signal the UCS. (Mcleod, 2024)
References
Bandura, A. (2024). Social Learning Theory. Retrieved from asecib:
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C, F. (2019, April 17). Behaviourist Approach. Retrieved from getRevising:
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Constrcutivism Theory. (2018, November 18). Retrieved from instrctionaldesign:
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Lim, A. (2024, February 2). Schedules of reinforcements. Retrieved from simplypsychology:
[Link]
Mcleod, S. (2024, February 1). Classical Conditioning. Retrieved from simplepsychology:
[Link]