Dept of CV

Waste Generation and Characterization

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Module 2: Factors affecting waste generation and methods to estimate the quantity
of waste generated. Physical, chemical, and biological methods of waste
characterization.

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Factors affecting Waste generation rate

1. Source Reduction & Recycling Activities

2. Public Attitudes and Legislation

3. Geographic location and physical factors on generation of Solid waste

1. Source Reduction & Recycling Activities

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Waste reduction may occur through the design, manufacture and packing of
products with the minimum toxic content, minimum volume of materials and with
minimum materials of longer useful life.

• Waste reduction may also occur at the household, commercial or industrial

facility through selective buying patterns and by the use of recyclable materials.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
• Source reduction is not considered an important element at the present time,
because it is difficult to estimate the impact of reduction on the total quantity of
waste generated. Never the less, source reduction will likely become an
impartment factor in reducing the quantity of waste generated.

Some of the other ways in which source reduction can be achieved can be follows

Dept of CV a. Use fewer resources

b. Develop rate structures that encourages to produce less waste

c. Decrease unnecessary and excessive packing materials

d. Substitute recyclable products for disposal

 Waste Generation and Characterization
2. Public Attitudes and Legislation

• Public attitudes: Ultimately significant reduction in the quantity of waste

generated when and only if people are willing to change their habits, lifestyle and
to reduce burden associated with management of solid waste. A program of
continuing education is essential to bring about change in the public attitude.

• Legislation: The most important factors affecting the generation of certain type
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of waste is the existence of local, state and regulation concerning the use of
specific materials. Legislation dealing with packing of products is an example.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
3. Geographic location and physical factors on generation of Solid waste

Geographic location and physical factors that affect the quantities of waste generation
and collection include location season of the year, waste collection frequency and
characteristics of the service area.

• Geographic location – The influence of geographic location, different climates that

influences both the amount of certain types of solid waste generated and the time
Dept of CV period over which waste is generated. For example, substantial variation in the
amount of yard and garden waste generated in various parts of the country are
related to climates. That is in warmer southern areas, where the growing season is
longer than northern areas, yard wastes are collected not in considerable amounts
but also over longer time.

• Season of the year: The quantity of certain type of waste are also affected by the
season of the year.
 Waste Generation and Characterization

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Most commonly used methods to estimate the waste quantities are,

1. Load-Count Analysis

2. Weight-Volume Analysis

3. Materials-Balance Analysis
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 Waste Generation and Characterization
1. Load-Count Analysis:
• Load count analysis is a way to estimate the total amount of waste generated and its
composition. By knowing the average volume or weight of each load, the total waste
generation can be estimated.

• It involves observing and recording the number of waste collection vehicles (e.g., trucks)
arriving at a disposal site.

• For each load, the type of waste (e.g., residential, commercial, construction) and the estimated
Dept of CV volume or weight are recorded.

• This data can be used to determine waste generation rates, identify trends, and assess the
effectiveness of waste reduction and recycling programs.

• Accuracy: It provides a rough estimate.

• Data Used: The number of loads and their estimated volume or weight based on load sizes.

• Advantages: Simple and quick to implement, no specialized equipment required.

• Disadvantages: Less accurate & It relies heavily on assumptions about the waste.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Load-Count Analysis: Sampling

• For analysis, a sample size of 100-200 kg is sufficient from a truck load. American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM) has named this method as ASTM-D5231-92 standard
method for composition analysis of the municipal solid waste.

• To obtain this 100 kg sample, coning and quartering method is utilized.

• First of all, the large pieces of the waste items are converted to smaller ones to
Dept of CV homogenously mix the waste. Then waste heap is converted to a conical shape with pile
diameter 4 to 8 times the pile height (approximately 0.8 m high).

• The cone is then flattened and is divided into four quarters using straight lines,
perpendicular to each other. The opposite quarters are discarded and again rests of the
two quarters are mixed. The above procedure is repeated to get a sample size of
approximately 100-200 kg (minimum 100 kg).
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Load-Count Analysis: Sampling
• This sample is then segregated in different components like food waste, paper,
plastics, rags, garden trimmings, glass, metals and debris etc., and percentage of
each is calculated on weight basis.

Dept of CV • The extra two quarters from the last reduction are utilized for moisture content
analysis and bulk density computations.

• The number of waste categories should be decided early in the sampling

program before initiating the composition study. This is usually decided
depending upon where the data are to be utilized.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Load-Count Analysis: Sampling

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Load-Count Analysis: Sampling

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
2. Weight-Volume Analysis:

• This method directly measures either the weight or volume of waste, often using weighbridges to

measure truckloads.

• This method combines the measurement of waste volume and weight. The volume of waste is

measured, and then its density is determined to calculate the total weight of waste.

• Choose waste from a typical day and source (residential, commercial, mixed). If possible, take

Dept of CV samples from different seasons/days to account for variation.

• Measure the Weight, If a weighbridge is available: weigh the truck before and after unloading.

Weight of waste=Gross weight−Tare weight. If no weighbridge: use portable scales for containers,

or weigh smaller loads separately and sum

• Measure the Volume, If using vehicles: calculate load volume from internal dimensions × % fill

level. If using sample heaps: measure length × width × height and apply a shape factor (e.g., 0.8

for conical piles).For containers: use known container volume × fill fraction.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
2. Weight-Volume Analysis:

• Calculate Density

Record in kg/m³ (or tonnes/m³).

• Repeat for Accuracy, Take multiple measurements for different loads. Average the results to get a

reliable density.
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• Accuracy: More accurate than load-count, as it involves direct measurement of waste.

• Data Used: Direct measurements of waste weight (tons) or volume (m3) using weighing systems.

• Advantages: High accuracy, particularly when waste is measured by weight.

• Disadvantages: Requires equipment such as weighbridges or calibrated containers, making it

more resource-intensive.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
3. Material Balance Method (Material Flow Analysis - MFA):
• As compared to load count analysis, this method gives relatively accurate value of
generation rates. However, high expenses and large amount of work is involved as
compared to load count analysis.

• In this method, a detailed material balance analysis for each generation source, such as
an individual home or a commercial and industrial activity is made. Following steps can
Dept of CV be followed for material balance analysis.

1. Draw a system boundary around the unit to be studied.

2. Identify all activities that cross or occur within the boundary and affect generation rate.

3. Give generation rate in each activity.

4. Determine the quantities of waste generated, collected and stored by using a material
balance.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
3. Material Balance Method (Material Flow Analysis - MFA):

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Accuracy: This method can provide a comprehensive and accurate estimate of waste
generation, especially when detailed data on material flows are available.
Data Used: Information on material inputs (raw materials, consumables) and outputs
(finished products, exports, emissions, and waste).
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Advantages:

• Can account for complex waste streams, including byproducts, emissions, and
unaccounted losses.

• Helps track resource use and sustainability.

Disadvantages:

• Requires extensive and detailed data on material flows, which may not always be
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available.

• More complex and resource-intensive to implement compared to load-count analysis

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
• Specific Weight (Density)

• Moisture Content

• Particle Size and Distribution

• Field Capacity
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• Permeability of Compacted Waste
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
1. Specific Weight (Density):
• Density of solid waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a critical factor in the
design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary landfills, storage, types of collection
and transport vehicles, etc.

• Usually, it refers to un-compacted waste. To explain, an efficient operation of a landfill

Dept of CV demands compaction of wastes to optimum density. Any normal compaction equipment
can achieve reduction in volume of wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of
100 kg/m3 to 400 kg/m3.

• In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the weight of waste in its
compacted state than when it is un-compacted. A high initial density of waste precludes
the achievement of a high compaction ratio and the compaction ratio achieved is no
greater than 1.5:1.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
Typical Specific Weight Values

Components Density (kg/m3)

Range Typical
Food wastes 130-480 290
Paper 40-130 89
Plastics 40-130 64
Yard Wastes 65-225 100
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Glass 160-480 194
Tin cans 50-160 89
Aluminum 65-240 160
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
2. Moisture Content:
The moisture content of solid waste usually expressed as the mass of moisture per unit
mass of wet or dry materials. In the wet mass method of measurement, the moisture in a
sample is expressed as a percentage of the wet mass of the material. In dry mass method, it
is expressed as a percentage of the dry mass of the materials

Dept of CV The wet mass Moisture content is expressed as follows

𝑎−𝑏
Moisture Content = × 100
𝑎
Where a = Initial mass of sample
b = mass of sample after drying

To obtain the dry mass, the solid waste material is dried in an oven at 105°c for 24hrs. This
temperature and time used to dehydrate the materials completely and to limit the
vaporization of volatile materials.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
3. Particle Size and Distribution

The size and distribution of the components of wastes are important for the recovery of
materials, especially when mechanical means are used, such as trommel screens and
magnetic separators. For example, ferrous items which are of a large size may be too heavy
to be separated by a magnetic belt or drum system. The size of waste components can be
Dept of CV determined using the following equations:

• Sc = L

• Sc = (L+w)/2

• Sc= (L+w+h)/3

Where Sc : size of component, mm

L : length, mm W : width, mm h : height, mm

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
4. Field Capacity

• The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture which can be retained in a
waste sample subject to gravitational pull. It is a critical physical characteristics of solid
waste because water in excess of field capacity will form leachate, and leachate can be a
major problem in landfills. Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and
Dept of CV the state of decomposition of the wastes. The concept of Field capacity is shown in the
Figure.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Physical Composition or Properties
5. Permeability of Compacted Waste

• The permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of compacted solid waste is an important

physical property because it governs the movement of liquids &gases in a landfill.

• Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material include Pore size
distribution, Surface area and Porosity.
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6. Porosity: It represents the amount of voids per unit overall volume of material. The
porosity of MSW varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and
composition of the waste.

7. Compressibility: Degree of physical changes of the suspended solids or filter cake when
subjected to pressure.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization
Knowledge of the classification of chemical compounds and their characteristics is essential
for the proper understanding of the behaviour of waste, as it moves through the waste
management system.

The products of decomposition and heating values are two examples of chemical
characteristics. If solid wastes are to be used as fuel, or are used for any other purpose, we
must know their chemical characteristics, including the following:
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1. Lipids 6. Heating value

2. Carbohydrates 7. Ultimate analysis

3. Proteins 8. Proximate analysis

4. Natural fibres 9. Non-combustibles

5. Synthetic organic material (Plastics)

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Lipids:

• This class of compounds includes fats, oils and grease and the principal
sources of lipids are garbage, cooking oils and fats.

• Lipids have high heating values, about 38,000 kJ/kg (kilojoules per kilogram),
Dept of CV which makes waste with high lipid content suitable for energy recovery.

• Since lipids become liquid at temperatures slightly above ambient, they add
to the liquid content during waste decomposition.

• Though they are biodegradable, the rate of biodegradation is relatively slow

because lipids have a low solubility in water.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Carbohydrates:

• These are found primarily in food and yard wastes, which

encompass sugar and polymer of sugars (e.g., starch, cellulose,
etc.) with general formula (CH2O)x.
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• Carbohydrates are readily biodegraded to products such as carbon
dioxide, water and methane.

• Decomposing carbohydrates attract flies and rats and therefore,

should not be left exposed for long duration.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Proteins:
• These are compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen and
consist of an organic acid with a substituted amine group (NH2).

• They are mainly found in food and garden wastes. The partial decomposition of

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these compounds can result in the production of amines that have unpleasant
odours.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Natural fibres:
• These are found in paper products, food and yard wastes and include the
natural compounds, cellulose and lignin that are resistant to biodegradation.
(Note that paper is almost 100% cellulose, cotton over 95% and wood products
over 40%.)
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• Because they are a highly combustible solid waste, having a high proportion of
paper and wood products, they are suitable for incineration.

• Calorific values of oven-dried paper products are in the range of 12,000 - 18,000
kJ/kg and of wood about 20,000 kJ/kg, i.e., about half that for fuel oil, which is
44,200 kJ/kg.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Synthetic organic material (Plastics):
• Accounting for 1 – 10%, plastics have become a significant component of solid waste in
recent years.

• They are highly resistant to biodegradation and therefore, are objectionable and of
special concern in SWM.

• Hence the increasing attention being paid to the recycling of plastics to reduce the
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proportion of this waste component at disposal sites. Plastics have a high heating
value, about 32,000 kJ/kg, which makes them very suitable for incineration.

• But you must note that polyvinyl chloride (PVC), when burnt, produces dioxin and acid
gas.

• The latter increases corrosion in the combustion system and is responsible for acid
rain.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:
• Non-combustibles: This class includes glass, ceramics, metals, dust and ashes, and
accounts for 12 – 25% of dry solids.

• Energy Content of Solid Waste Components: The energy content of the organic
components in MSW can be determined (1) by using a full scale boiler as a calorimeter
(2) by using a laboratory bomb calorimeter, and (3) by calculation, if the elemental
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composition is known. Because of the difficulty in instrumenting a full-scale boiler,
most of the data on the energy content of the organic components of MSW are based
on the results of bomb calorimeter tests.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:
Heating value:

• An evaluation of the potential of waste material for use as fuel for incineration
requires a determination of its heating value expressed as kilojoules per kilogram
(kJ/kg).

• The heating value is determined experimentally using the Bomb calorimeter test, in
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which the heat generated, at a constant temperature of 25 0C from the combustion of
a dry sample is measured.

• Since the test temperature is below the boiling point of water (100 0C), the
combustion water remains in the liquid state. However, during combustion, the
temperature of the combustion gases reaches above 100 0C, and the resultant water is
in the vapour form.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Note that while evaluating incineration as a means of disposal or energy

recovery, we need to consider the heating values of respective constituents.

For example:

• Organic material yields energy only when dry.

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• The moisture content in the waste reduces the dry organic material per
kilogram of waste and requires a significant amount of energy for drying.

• The ash content of the waste reduces the proportion of dry organic material
per kilogram of waste and retains some heat when removed from the furnace.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Ultimate analysis:
• This refers to an analysis of waste to determine the proportion of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur and the analysis is done to make mass balance calculation for
a chemical or thermal process.

• Besides, it is necessary to determine ash fraction because of its potentially harmful

environmental effects, brought about by the presence of toxic metals such as cadmium,
Dept of CV chromium, mercury, nickel, lead, tin and zinc.

• Note that other metals (e.g., iron, magnesium, etc.) may also be present but they are non-
toxic.

• The results are use to characterize the chemical composition of the organic matter in MSW.

• Used to define proper mix of waste material to achieve suitable C/N ratios for biological
conversion processes.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Ultimate analysis:
• Analysis for solid waste for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulphur can be done using
CHNS analyzer.

• In the absence of such equipment chemical formula for solid waste can be calculated.

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Proximate analysis:
Proximate analysis of waste aims to determine moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed
carbon. This is important in evaluating the combustion properties of wastes or refuse
derived fuel.

The fractions of interest are:

• Moisture content which adds weight to the waste without increasing its heating value,
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and the evaporation of water reduces the heat released from the fuel.

• Ash which adds weight without generating any heat during combustion.

• Volatile matter i.e. that portion of the waste that is converted to gases before and
during combustion.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Proximate analysis:
• Fixed carbon which represents the carbon remaining on the surface grates as charcoal.
A waste or fuel with a high proportion of fixed carbon requires a longer retention time
on the furnace grates to achieve complete combustion than a waste or fuel with a low
proportion of fixed carbon.

• Proximate analysis for the combustible components of MSW includes the following
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tests Loss of moisture (loss at 105 0C for 1 h).

• Volatile Combustible Matter (VCM) (additional loss of weight on ignition at 950 0C in a

closed crucible i.e. additional loss on ignition at 950 0C).

• Fixed Carbon (combustible residue left after volatile matter is recovered i.e. residue
after burning).

• Ash (weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible i.e. remainder).

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization: Proximate analysis:

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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Chemical characterization:

Fusing Point of Ash:

• The fusing point ash is defined as that temperature at which the ash
resulting from the burning of waste will form a solid (clinker) by fusion
and agglomeration.
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• Typical fusing temperature for the formation of clinker from solid waste

range from 2000 to 2200 oF (1100 to 1200 oC).

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Biological Characterization:
Biological Properties:

• Biodegradability of OWC (Organic Waste Converter)

• Odors

• Breeding of flies

Dept of CV The most important biological characteristic of the organic fraction of MSW is that
almost all of the organic components can be converted biologically to gases and
relatively inert organic and inorganic solids.

The production of odours and the generation of flies are also related to the putrescible
nature of the organic materials found in MSW (e.g., food wastes).
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Biological Characterization:
Excluding plastic, rubber and leather components, the organic fraction of most MSW can be
classified as follows:

• Water-soluble constituents such as sugars, starches, amino acids, and various organic acids.

• Hemicelluloses, a condensation product of five- and six-carbon sugars.

• Cellulose, a condensation product of the six-carbon sugar glucose.

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• Fats, oils, and waxes which are esters of alcohols and long-chain fatty acids.

• Lignin, a polymeric material containing aromatic rings with methoxyl groups (-OCH3), the exact
chemical nature of which is still not known (present in some paper products such as newsprint
and fiberboard).

• Lignocelluloses, a combination of lignin and cellulose.

• Proteins, which are composed of chains of amino acids.

 Waste Generation and Characterization
Biological Characterization:
• Volatile solids (VS) content, determined by ignition at 550 oC, is often used as a
measure of the biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW.

• The use of VS in describing the biodegradability of the organic fraction of MSW is

misleading, as some of the organic constituents of MSW are highly volatile but low in
biodegradability (e.g., newsprint and certain plant trimmings).
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 Waste Generation and Characterization
Biological Characterization:
Alternatively, the lignin content of a waste can be used to estimate the biodegradable
fraction, using the following relationship:

BF = 0.83 – 0.028 LC

where BF= biodegradable fraction expressed on a volatile solids (VS) basis

Dept of CV 0.83 = empirical constant

0.028 = empirical constant

LC = lignin content of VS expressed as a percent of dry weight

Wastes with high lignin contents, such as newsprint, are significantly less biodegradable
than the other organic wastes found in MSW.
 Waste Generation and Characterization
Biological Characterization:

• Production Odors

Typically, the formation of odors results from the anaerobic

decomposition of the readily decomposable organic components found in
solid waste.
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• Breeding of Flies

In the summertime and during all seasons in warm climates, fly breeding
is an important consideration in the on-sight storage of wastes. Flies can
develop in less than two weeks after the eggs are laid. If larval (maggot)
develop, they are difficult to remove when the containers are emptied.
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