Air Compressor Arrangement & Distribution for Ships Machinery Spaces

Usually a two-stage, two-crank air compressor machine used aboard ship to

supply compressed air. The air is compressed in the first stage, cooled and
compressed to higher pressure in the next stage. Compressors must always be
started at the unloaded condition since otherwise pressures build up rapidly
producing very high starting torques.

Compressed air has many uses on board ship, ranging from diesel engine
starting to the cleaning of machinery during maintenance. The air pressures of
25 bar or more are usually provided in multi-stage machines. Here the air is
compressed in the first stage, cooled and compressed to a higher pressure in the
next stage, and so on. The two-stage crank machine is probably the most
common.

Air is drawn in on the suction stroke through the first-stage suction valve via the
silencer/filter. The suction valve closes on the piston upstroke and the air is
compressed. The compressed air, having reached its first-stage pressure, passes
through the delivery valve to the first-stage cooler. The second-stage suction
and compression now take place in a similar manner, achieving a much higher
pressure in the smaller, second-stage cylinder.

After passing through the second-stage delivery valve, the air is again cooled
and delivered to the storage system. The machine has a rigid crankcase which
provides support for the three crankshaft bearings. The cylinder block is located
above and replaceable liners are fitted in the cylinder block. The running gear
consists of pistons, connecting rods and the one-piece, two-throw crankshaft.

The first-stage cylinder head is located on the cylinder block and the second-
stage cylinder head is mounted on the first: each of the heads carries its suction
and delivery valves. A chain-driven rotary-gear pump provides lubricating oil to
the main bearings and through internally drilled passages in the crankshaft to
both connecting rod bearings. Cooling water is supplied either from an integral
pump or the machinery space system. The water passes into the cylinder block
which contains both stage coolers and then into the first and second stage
cylinder heads.
A water jacket safety valve prevents a build-up of pressure should a cooler tube
burst and compressed air escape. Relief valves are fitted to the first and second-
stage air outlets and are designed to lift at 10% excess pressure. A fusible plug
is fitted after the second-stage cooler to limit delivered air temperature and thus
protect the compressed-air reservoirs and pipework.

Cooler drain valves are fitted to compressors. When these are open the machine
is 'unloaded' and does not produce compressed air. A compressor when started
must always be in the unloaded condition. This reduces the starting torque for
the machine and clears out any accumulated moisture in the system. This
moisture can affect lubrication and may produce oil/water emulsions which line
the air pipelines and could lead to fires or explosions.

The compressor motor is started and the machine run up to speed. The
lubricating oil pressure should be observed to build up to the correct value. The
first-stage drains and then the second-stage drains are closed and the machine
will begin to operate. The pressure gauge cocks should be adjusted to give a
steady reading. Where manual drains are fitted they should be slightly opened to
discharge any moisture which may collect in the coolers. The cooling water
supply should be checked, and also operating temperatures, after a period of
running loaded.

To stop the compressor, the first and second-stage cooler drain valves should be
opened and the machine run unloaded for two to three minutes. This unloaded
running will clear the coolers of condensate. The compressor can now be
stopped and the drains should be left open. The cooling water should be isolated
if the machine is to be stopped for a long period.

Automatic compressor operation is quite usual and involves certain additional

equipment. An unloader must be fitted to ensure the machine starts unloaded,
and once running at speed will load' and begin to produce compressed air.
Various methods of unloading can be used but marine designs favour either
depressors which hold the suction valve plates on their seats or a bypass which
discharges to suction. Automatic drains must also be fitted to ensure the
removal of moisture from the stage coolers. A non-return valve is usually fitted
as close as possible to the discharge valve on a compressor to prevent return air
flow: it is an essential fitting where unloaders are used.

Control or instrument air supplies have particular requirements with regard to

being moisture and oil free and without impurities. A special type of oil-free
compressor may be used to supply control air or it may be treated after delivery
from an ordinary air compressor. This treatment results in the air being filtered
and dried in order to remove virtually all traces of oil, moisture and any
atmospheric impurities.

Two stage air compressor

Compressed Air Systems for Various Shipboard Operations
The main aim of a compressor, as the name suggests, is to compress air or any
fluid in order to reduce its volume. Some of the main applications of
compressors onboard ships are main air compressor, deck air compressor, AC
compressor and refrigeration compressor. Failure to start or control air
compressor can be inconvenient, costly and can carry risks, which need to be
managed.

Compressed air has many uses on board ship, ranging from diesel engine
starting to the cleaning of machinery during maintenance. Ships compressed air
systems are usually divided into one or more of the following:

 Main and auxiliary engine starting air system (high pressure).

 Service air.
 Control air.
 Instrument air.
 Deck services

Low pressure (5-8 bar) air may be supplied by either individual compressors or
pressure reducing valves fitted within the high pressure circuit.
High Pressure System

The Main and Auxiliary Engine starting air supply is to be monitored carefully
for excess oil and water. Where compressors are fitted with cylinder lubrication
then particular attention to the cylinder oil feed is required. Moisture traps and
drain valves are to be blown down at regular intervals. Should the blowdown
indicate excessive oil or moisture then the reason is to be immediately
investigated.

All operating valves in the starting air system are to be operated slowly and with
extreme caution. Do not stand directly in front of a high pressure valve when
opening or closing. The Engine Room Staff are to be made fully aware by the
Chief Engineer of the importance of correct operation and maintenance of the
starting air compressors, and the effects of their failure during manoeuvring of
the vessel. During manoeuvring of the main engine the starting air compressors
are to be monitored locally for any sign of overheating or problem.

Low Pressure System

Compressed air equipment which supplies low pressure air for control or
instrument purposes must be monitored constantly for moisture or other
contaminants. Air, which is wet or contaminated, will have detrimental affects
upon engine manoeuvring systems and process control.

All filters and moisture traps are to be cleaned and serviced as per the maker’s
instructions or at intervals determined by operational experience. Short cycling
of compressors indicated excessive consumption (leakage) must be investigated
immediately. Long periods of compressor running are also to be investigated.

Dryers

For engine room service, refrigerant tap driers are normal practice. These units
give long service with little maintenance, however manufacturer’s instructions
must be adhered to. In some cases, absorption type driers are fitted which
require strict change over routines.
Deck Service Compressors

Unwarranted use of these machines is to be avoided at all times. It is essential

that any deck services are shut down when not required. Supply from the main
starting compressors via reducing valves is not to be used for deck general
service air supply unless an emergency exists.

Alarms

All compressor alarms, shut downs and measuring instruments are to be

checked and calibrated at regular intervals and in line with the Planned
Maintenance requirements. Emergency Air Compressors are to be tested as part
of the weekly safety routines onboard.

Safety precautions

A recent case involving the failure of a control air compressor on board a ship
illustrates how essential the control air system is to safe operations. The
compressor in question provided compressed air to the main engine clutches.
Failure of the air supply resulted in failure of the clutches. The ship sustained
collision damage and subsequent delays.

The control air receiver was insufficiently topped up to re-engage the clutches.
It is recommended that when one air compressor fails, the air receivers should
be kept topped up at all times by the standby compressor.

Repair of the air compressor should be prompt. The engine room should operate
a watch system and the Unattended Machinery Space notation should be
considered suspended.

It is also recommended that the low air pressure alarm and set point be checked
on a regular basis using currently calibrated gauges.
Heat Exchangers

Heat exchangers on board ship are mainly coolers where a hot liquid is cooled
by sea water. There are some instances where liquid heating is required, such as
heavy fuel oil heaters and sea water heaters for tank cleaning. Although being
heat exchangers, the main condenser for a steam ship and the
evaporator/distiller are dealt with separately.

The heat exchange process is accomplished by having the two liquids pass on
either side of a conducting surface. The heat from the hot liquid passes to the
cold liquid and the conducting surface, i.e. the tube wall, is at a temperature
between the two. It is usual for marine heat exchangers to have the two liquids
flowing in opposite directions, i.e. counter or contra flow. This arrangement
provides a fairly constant temperature difference between the two liquids and
therefore the maximum heat transfer for the available surface area.

Coolers (Heat Exchangers) at sea fall into two groups. Namely shell and
tube type coolers and the plate type.

Shell and Tube Type Heat Exchangers

In the shell and tube design a tube bundle or stack is fitted into a shell. The end
plates are sealed at either end of the shell and provision is made at one end for
expansion. The tubes are sealed into the tube plate at either end and provide a
passageway for the cooling liquid. Headers or water boxes surround the tube
plates and enclose the shell.

They are arranged for either a single pass or, as in Figure below, for a double
pass of cooling liquid. The tube bundle has baffles fitted which serve to direct
the liquid to be cooled up and down over the tubes as it passes along the cooler.
The joint arrangements at the tube plate ends are different. At the fixed end,
gaskets are fitted between either side of the tube plate and the shell and end
cover.
At the other end, the tube plate is free to move with seals fitted either side of a
safety expansion ring. Should either liquid leak past the seal it will pass out of
the cooler and be visible. There will be no intermixing or contamination.

Shell and tube type heat exchanger

Plate type heat exchangers

The plate-type heat exchanger is made up of a number of pressed plates

surrounded by seals and held together in a frame. The inlet and outlet branches
for each liquid are attached to one end plate. The arrangement of seals between
the plates provides passageways between adjacent plates for the cooling liquid
and the hot liquid. The plates have various designs of corrugations to aid heat
transfer and provide support for the large, flat surface. A double seal
arrangement is provided at each branch point with a drain hole to detect leakage
and prevent intermixing or contamination.
 Plate type heat exchanger - construction and operation

Operation of Heat Exchanger

Temperature control of heat exchangers is usually achieved by adjusting the

cooling liquid outlet valve. The inlet valve is left open and this ensures a
constant pressure within the cooler. This is particularly important with sea water
cooling where reducing pressure could lead to aeration or the collecting of air
within the cooler. Air remaining in a cooler will considerably reduce the cooling
effect. Vents are provided in the highest points of coolers which should be
opened on first filling and occasionally afterwards. Vertical mounting of single
pass coolers will ensure automatic venting. Positioning the inlet cooling water
branch facing downwards and the outlet branch upwards will achieve automatic
venting with horizontally mounted coolers. Drain plugs are also fitted at the
lowest point in coolers.

Maintenance of Heat Exchangers

Clean heat transfer surfaces are the main requirements for satisfactory
operation. With sea water cooling the main problem is fouling of the surfaces,
i.e. the presence of marine plant and animal growth.

With shell and tube coolers the end covers are removed to give access to the
tubes for cleaning. Special tools are usually provided by the cooler
manufacturer for cleaning the tubes. The end covers can also be cleaned.

Tube leakage can result from corrosion. This can be checked for, or identified,
by having the shell side of the cooler circulated while the cooling water is shut
off and the end covers removed. Any seepage into the tubes will indicate the
leak. It is also possible to introduce fluorescent dyes into the shell-side liquid:
any seepage will show under an ultraviolet light as a bright green glow. Leaking
tubes can be temporarily plugged at each end or removed and replaced with a
new tube.

Plate-type heat exchanger which develop leaks present a more difficult problem.
The plates must be visually examined to detect the faulty point. The joints
between the plates can present problems in service, or on assembly of the cooler
after maintenance.

Where heat exchangers are out of use for a long period, such as during surveys
or major overhauls, they should be drained on the sea water side, flushed
through or washed with fresh water, and left to dry until required for service.

Boiler
A boiler in one form or another will be found on every type of ship. Where the
main machinery is steam powered, one or more large watertube boilers will be
fitted to produce steam at very high temperatures and pressures. On a diesel
main machinery vessel, a smaller (usually firetube type) boiler will be fitted to
provide steam for the various ship services. Even within the two basic design
types, watertube and firetube, a variety of designs and variations exist.

Boilers and Steam System

The steam system plays a major role in energy efficiency of certain ship types
(such as steam driven LNG ships) and a medium role in ships such as oil
tankers carrying liquid cargo that require cargo heating or there is a need for
cargo transfer using steam driven pumps but also need to generate Inert Gas for
cargo tank cleaning, purging or tank top ups. Figure (iv) shows typical level of
fuel use in boilers as compared to main and auxiliary engines for a VLCC
vessel.

Overview of a ship’s steam system

In commercial ships, the steam system normally includes the following

equipment:

Auxiliary boilers

Exhaust gas economisers

As the names imply, the exhaust gas economiser is a waste heat recovery
system that recovers heat from exhaust of main or auxiliary engines and thus
does not use fuel. The more the second system is used, the less will be a need
for use of the auxiliary boilers, thus good maintenance and operating conditions
of exhaust gas economiser should always be regarded as part of energy saving
in the steam system.

For the sake of presenting the energy efficiency case, the ship-board steam
system will be divided into the following parts:

The auxiliary boilers: This is where the steam is produced using fuel.

The exhaust gas economiser: This is where the steam is produced via waste
heat recovery.

The steam distribution system: This refers to steam piping system and
relevant instruments and devices used for steam controls.
Steam end-use: This refers to all the steam consuming systems such as steam
turbines, fresh water generators, steam heaters, etc.

A typical steam system for a ship

 A typical auxiliary boiler steam system configuration

Exhaust Gas Boilers and Economisers for Marine Machinery

Spaces
The use of exhaust gases from diesel main propulsion engines to generate steam
is a means of heat energy recovery and improved plant efficiency. An exhaust
gas heat exchanger is shown in Figure above. It is simply a row of tube banks
circulated by feedwater over which the exhaust gases flow. Individual banks
may be arranged to provide feed heating, steam generation and superheating. A
boiler drum is required for steam generation and separation to take place and
use is usually made of the drum of an auxiliary boiler.

Auxiliary steam plant system

The auxiliary steam installation provided in modern diesel powered tankers

usually uses an exhaust gas heat exchanger at the base of the funnel and one or
perhaps two watertube boilers.

Saturated or superheated steam may be obtained from the auxiliary boiler. At

sea it acts as a steam receiver for the exhaust-gas heat exchanger, which is
circulated through it. In port it is oil-fired in the usual way.
 Auxiliary steam plant system

Exhaust Gas Boilers and Economisers Arrangement

Auxiliary boilers on diesel main propulsion ships, other than tankers, are
usually of composite form, enabling steam generation using oil firing or the
exhaust gases from the diesel engine. With this arrangement the boiler acts as
the heat exchanger and raises steam in its own drum.
 Sketch of a steam economiser

Operating Instructions for Exhaust Gas Boiler/Economiser

These operating advices are not intended to be a comprehensive procedure, but

merely an aide-memoire. The actual manufacturer’s instructions coupled with
practical on-board experience will determine the actual sequence to be
followed. i) Start up from cold

 Ensure drain valves are shut.

 Open air vent.
 Ensure circulating pump valves are open.
 Crack open inlet valve and close air vents when steam/water issues.
 Slowly open inlet/outlet valve.
 Check valves, flanges etc. for leakage.
 Allow unit to warm through.
 Start circulating pump and ensure stand-by unit on auto mode.
 Check pump pressures, motor load etc.
 Check that the gas side differential pressure manometer is operational.
ii) Start up from Hot

If the system has been temporarily stopped, ensure that full circulation of water
is established before gas is allowed through boiler. It is the responsibility of the
Chief Engineer, or the Second Engineer in his absence, to ensure that a
Circulating Pump is running and operating correctly before starting the Main
Engine.

In the event that the main engine has been operating, with exhaust temperatures
above 200 degree C for any length of time, without the circulating pump
running, the engine must be slowed down and exhaust temperatures in and out
of the exhaust gas boiler to be brought to below 100 Centigrade before starting a
circulating pump. The consequences of starting a circulating pump with the
exhaust gas boiler tubes at elevated temperatures could be disastrous.

On vessels with an exhaust economiser by pass valve, water temperature is a

critical factor in preventing condensation and acid formation on the gas side.
The minimum temperature of 140 degree C should be kept, when running with
the exhaust gas bypassing the economiser.

iii) Operation

1) Exhaust gas boiler circulation must be maintained at all times. This is to

maintain tube temperature and prevent “cold end” corrosion of tube and fins.

2) Soot blowing to be carried out at least three times daily.

3) If it is necessary to stop circulation for any reason, the unit should be soot-
blown prior to shut down.

4) It is essential to take care that when slow steaming or running the main
engine in a condition where the exhaust produced is likely to foul the gas side
surfaces (auxiliary blower running), if fitted the gas by-pass should be used.

5) Monitor the differential pressure across the gas side and high exhaust gas
outlet temperature alarm if fitted.

6) If soot release chemical is available then inject as per the manufacturers

instructions.
iv) Normal Shutdown

1. Immediately prior to the end of sea passage operate the sootblowers.

2. Maintain circulation for a minimum of 12 hours after engine shutdown.

3. Shut down circulating pumps.

4. Shut boiler isolating valves.

5. Open drains and vent valve.

6. During the port stay monitor the economiser unit casing for signs of high
temperature.

v) Emergency Shutdown (Soot fire or tube failure)

1. Operate sootblowers.

2. Stop the circulation pump and isolate the unit.

3. Open the drain valves.

4. Depending upon circumstances stop the main engine.

5. Monitor the tube bank for soot fire progression.

Exhaust gas economiser efficiency

The Exhaust gas economiser in a ship is like a huge heat exchange that
exchanges heat between exhaust gas from engines to water and produces steam
for the same purpose that auxiliary boilers produce steam.

The revered energy and amount of steam generate by exhaust gas economiser is
normally sufficient for routine ship-board steam requirements, thus normally a
ship with exhaust gas economiser does not need to fire the boiler while in
passage. As far as improving efficiency by avoiding the fouling on the gas side
and water side, the same principles discussed under boiler applies.

The efficiency of an exhaust gas economiser can be improved by increased soot

blowing frequency (once or twice a day while at sea). Recording the exhaust gas
temperature difference and pressure drop can provide an indication of
economiser cleanliness. Water washing should be scheduled into major repair
periods.

The exhaust gas economiser maintenance will not only improve energy
efficiency but also reduce maintenance overall costs and reduce safety risks
associated with soot fires. Occasionally use of fuel additives may improve the
cleanliness of the economiser.

As for ship design, the maximum waste heat recovery is desirable. For exhaust
gas economisers, the funnel stack temperature must be as low as possible but
with sufficient margin to be above the dew point to avoid sulphur corrosion.
Generally a funnel temperature of 165 to 195 deg C when using fuel oil is
considered optimum.

Boiler Cleanliness

i) Water Washing

Sootblowing will remove dry deposits from the tube banks but for heavier
accumulations water washing is necessary. Experience and inspection will
determine the frequency necessary however, the normal requirement is to carry
out water washing every 500 hours of operation or once a month.

1. Shut down boiler and allow unit to cool.

2. Water wash using a hand held hose or lance. Salt water may be used for
initial washing although fresh water is preferable, usual quantity in the region of
15 – 20 tons. To aid the removal of acidic soot deposits, a mildly neutralising
detergent may be added to the water wash.

3. If fouling is severe and deposits are difficult to remove, it may be necessary

to apply chemical detergent solutions directly to the tube surfaces prior to
washing. Allow time to soak before hosing down.

4. Final rinsing of tubes should be at least 30 minutes with fresh water to

remove all salt water if used and/or cleaning chemicals.

ii) Soot Collection

The majority of vessels are fitted with a soot collection tank for soot/wash
retention while water washing exhaust Gas Boilers or Economisers.
Some designs have the soot discharged directly overboard via an educator
driven by the fire main or similar arrangement. Others being of simple
collection tank and “weir system” whereby the soot is retained within the tank
with wash water returning to bilge for discharge overboard via the OWS. The
approved plans for the vessel’s arrangements should be onboard.

With regard to the “weir system” the soot is then collected and retained onboard
for disposal ashore. Whenever soot is landed ashore for disposal, pertinent
details are to be recorded in the Garbage Log Book .

Dry Running

The practice of operating an exhaust gas boiler without circulation through the
tubes should be avoided except in emergency situations. The following normal
dry running procedures must be adhered to:

 Inform respective Management Office regarding the situation.

 Read instruction manual section before operating the equipment in a dry
condition.
 The engine exhaust gas temperature must be no higher than the expected
maximum.
 The period of dry running must be as short as possible.
 Prior to dry running the tube banks must be cleaned to remove all traces of
soot and other accumulations.
 Cleaning by sootblowing must continue throughout the dry running period
with at least the same frequency as for normal operation.
 The tube bank must be drained and vented.
 Monitoring of inlet and outlet gas temperatures is important to ensure no
sudden rise occurs. Temperature excursions may indicate the presence of a
sootfire.

Why is the gas outlet temperature kept about 180°C in an exhaust gas heat
exchanger? - The gas temperature outlet in an exhaust gas heat exchanger is
kept above 180°C to prevent low temperature corrosion occurring. There is
about 10% water vapour in exhaust gas and also sulphur products and this can
lead to suphuric acid forming which has a dew point of 140°C. The amount of
exhaust gas energy used in waste heat recovering systems is about 5 10 %.
Bilge and Ballast Systems for Ships Machinery Spaces
The bilge system is used to remove small quantities of fluid that have leaked or
condensed into a dry space. The system serves the machinery spaces, cargo
holds, cofferdams, voids, stores, tunnels and pump rooms. Each space has its
own piping but the pump is likely to be shared.

The bilge main is arranged to drain any watertight compartment other than
ballast, oil or water tanks and to discharge the contents overboard. The number
of pumps and their capacity depend upon the size, type and service of the
vessel. All bilge suctions must be fitted with suitable strainers, which in the
machinery space would be mud boxes positioned at floorplate level for easy
access. A vertical drop pipe would lead down to the bilge.

The emergency bilge suction or bilge injection valve is used to prevent flooding
of the ship. It is a direct suction from the machinery space bilge which is
connected to the largest capacity pump or pumps. An emergency bilge pump is
required for passenger ships but may also be fitted as an extra on cargo ships. It
must be a completely independent unit capable of operating even if submerged.

Bilge and ballast systems are interconnected so that each can perform the other's
function in an emergency, ie a ballast pump could be used to pump out a
flooded engine room. They are connected by means of a crossover valve.

A centrifugal pump with a priming device is usually used, driven by an electric

motor housed in an air bell. The power supply is arranged from the emergency
generator. The various pumps and lines are interconnected to some extent so
that each pump can act as an alternative or standby for another

The capacity of a bilge system is defined by the diameter of the bilge main and
pump capacity for the volume of the enclosed space. In passenger and cargo
ships where the engine room provides bilge pumping, the whole ship is the
‘enclosed space’.

The diameter of the bilge main is:

d = 25+1.68vL(B+D)

where, d = internal diameter of bilge main, in millimetres

L = length between the ship’s perpendiculars, in metres

B = extreme breadth, in metres

D = moulded depth, in metres

In a tanker with a separate cargo pumping and piping system, the ‘enclosed
space’ is the engine room and the diameter of the bilge main is:

d = 35+3vLo (B+D)

where,

Lo = length of the engine room, in metres

Cargo ships are required to have two bilge pumps with non-return valves fitted
to prevent back-flow or cross-flow. The pumping system in a passenger ship
must be able to drain water from any dry space when one or more of the ship’s
other compartments are flooded. However, the system is not required to empty
the flooded space. A flooded passenger ship is required to have at least one
bilge pump, with its own power supply, available for pumping. Bilge suctions
must have remotely operated suction valves. The minimum number of pumps
required is three or four, depending on the ship’s design.

Mud boxes and strum boxes (line filters) are fitted at the ends and in bilge lines
to stop debris being sucked into the pipe. The requirements for bilge systems on
ships carrying dangerous goods are basically the same as for cargo ships.
However, systems drawing fluids from gas-dangerous spaces are kept
segregated with their own pumps and pipes, where appropriate, from systems
serving gas-safe spaces.

The ballast system

The ballast system is arranged to ensure that water can be drawn from any tank
or the sea and discharged to any other tank or the sea as required to trim the
vessel. Combined or separate mains for suction and discharge may be provided.
Where a tank or cargo space can be used for ballast or dry cargo then either a
ballast or bilge connection will be required. The system must therefore be
arranged so that only the appropriate pipeline is in service; the other must be
securely blanked or closed off. Where tanks are arranged for either oil or ballast
a change-over chest must be Fitted in the pipeline so that only the ballast main
or the oil transfer main is connected to the tank.

Bilge and ballast systems onboard

Ballast pumps - Electric-driven pumps, usually vertically mounted and fitted

with separate motor-driven priming systems. Close-coupled designs have the
pump rotor mounted on an extended motor shaft. This can cause difficulties
when there is a need to open up the pump, as the motor may also have to be
dismantled to gain access. With owners expecting to shorten port turn round
times; the need to get the ballast in or out of the tanks can take on a sense of
urgency.

Container ships are case in point. With containers stacked perhaps six high they
cannot leave port until the ballasting is correct. This means that ballast pumps
have to move impressive amounts of seawater. If the operator says the ballast
tanks have to be filled or emptied in a certain time, it is possible to look at this
simplistically and divide their volume by the time to calculate the rate.
However, as the tank empties, the head will reduce, and so will the effective
flow rate. This in turn means the safety margin built in by the pump
manufacturer is reduced, and friction losses in the pipework can take the flow
out of specification.

A priming system with an adequate air-handling capacity is another important

need. The pump/priming system not only has to contend with the depth of the
tanks in the double bottom but also with the height of the pump above the
tanktop. Air ejectors have limited capacity, so for the larger pumps separate
motor driven pumps are required.

Steering gear requirement for various ship types

Every ocean going cargo ship need to be provided with a main steering gear and
an auxiliary steering gear unless the main steering gear comprises two or more
identical power units. The main steering gear is to be capable of putting the
rudder over from 35° on one side to 35° on the other side with the ship at its
deepest draft and running ahead at maximum service speed, and under the same
conditions from 35° on either side to 30° on the other side in not more than 28
seconds. It is to be power operated where necessary to meet the above
conditions and where the stock diameter exceeds 120mm.

The auxiliary steering gear is to be capable of putting the rudder over 15° on
one side to 15° on the other side in not more than 60 seconds with the ship at its
deepest draft and running ahead at half the maximum service speed or 7 knots
whichever is greater. Power operated auxiliary steering gear is required if
necessary to meet the forgoing requirement or where the rudder stock diameter
exceeds 230 mm.

The main steering gear for oil tankers, chemical tankers or gas carriers of 10000
gross tonnage or more and every other ship of 70 000 gross tonnage or more is
to consist of two or more identical power units which are capable of operating
the rudder as indicated for the main steering gear above and whilst operating
with all power units. If a passenger ship, this requirement is to be met when any
one of the power units is inoperable.
 Typical 4 ram steering gear arrangement for cargo ships

Steering gear control for power operated main and auxiliary steering gears is
from the bridge and steering gear compartment, the auxiliary steering gear
control being independent of the main steering gear control (but not duplication
of the wheel or steering lever).

Steering gear on ocean-going ships is generally of the electro-hydraulic type.

Where the rudder stock is greater than 230 mm an alternative power supply is to
be provided automatically from the ship’s emergency power supply or from an
independent source of power located in the steering gear compartment.

The steering gear provides a movement of the rudder in response to a signal

from the bridge. The total system may be considered made up of three parts,
control equipment, a power unit and a transmission to the rudder stock. The
control equipment conveys a signal of desired rudder angle from the bridge and
activates the power unit and transmission system until the desired angle is
reached. The power unit provides the force, when required and with immediate
effect, to move the rudder to the desired angle. The transmission system, the
steering gear, is the means by which the movement of the rudder is
accomplished.

Steering gears can be arranged with hydraulic control equipment known as a

'telemeter', or with electrical control equipment. The power unit may in turn be
hydraulic or electrically operated. Each of these units will be considered in turn,
with the hydraulic unit pump being considered first. A pump is required in the
hydraulic system which can immediately pump fluid in order to provide a
hydraulic force that will move the rudder. Instant response does not allow time
for the pump to be switched on and therefore a constantly running pump is
required which pumps fluid only when required. A variable delivery pump
provides this facility.

Generally, work should not be done on steering gear when a ship is under way.
If it is necessary to work on steering gear when the vessel is at sea, the ship
should be stopped and suitable steps taken to immobilise the rudder by closing
the valves on the hydraulic cylinders or by other appropriate and effective
means.

Operation of ships steering gear

The steering gear provides a movement of the rudder in response to a signal

from the bridge. The total system may be considered made up of three parts,
control equipment, a power unit and a transmission to the rudder stock. The
control equipment conveys a signal of desired rudder angle from the bridge and
activates the power unit and transmission system until the desired angle is
reached.

The power unit provides the force, when required and with immediate effect, to
move the rudder to the desired angle. The transmission system, the steering
gear, is the means by which the movement of the rudder is accomplished.

Certain requirements must currently be met by a ship's steering system. There

must be two independent means of steering, although where two identical power
units are provided an auxiliary unit is not required.

The power and torque capability must be such that the rudder can be swung
from 35° one side to 35° the other side with the ship at maximum speed, and
also the time to swing from 35° one side to 30° the other side must not exceed
28 seconds. The system must be protected from shock loading and have
pipework which is exclusive to it as well as be constructed from approved
materials. Control of the steering gear must be provided in the steering gear
compartment.

Tankers of 10000 ton gross tonnage and upwards must have two independent
steering gear control systems which are operated from the bridge. Where one
fails, changeover to the other must be immediate and achieved from the bridge
position. The steering gear itself must comprise two independent systems where
a failure of one results in an automatic changeover to the other within 45
seconds. Any of these failures should result in audible and visual alarms on the
bridge.

Steering gears can be arranged with hydraulic control equipment known as a

'telemeter', or with electrical control equipment. The power unit may in turn be
hydraulic or electrically operated. Each of these units will be considered in turn,
with the hydraulic unit pump being considered first. A pump is required in the
hydraulic system which can immediately pump fluid in order to provide a
hydraulic force that will move the rudder. Instant response does not allow time
for the pump to be switched on and therefore a constantly running pump is
required which pumps fluid only when required. A variable delivery pump
provides this facility.