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Numerical Linear Algebra Exam Guide

You should focus on the following chapters for your Numerical Linear Algebra exam: Chapter 3 on Floating Point Numbers and Errors, Chapter 4 on Stability of Algorithms and Conditioning of Problems, and Chapter 5 on Gaussian Elimination and LU Factorization. Additionally, review the sections on QR Factorization, SVD, Cholesky decomposition, positive definite matrices, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and Gaussian elimination. Make sure to understand concepts related to floating point arithmetic, error analysis, and algorithm stability.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
17 views14 pages

Numerical Linear Algebra Exam Guide

You should focus on the following chapters for your Numerical Linear Algebra exam: Chapter 3 on Floating Point Numbers and Errors, Chapter 4 on Stability of Algorithms and Conditioning of Problems, and Chapter 5 on Gaussian Elimination and LU Factorization. Additionally, review the sections on QR Factorization, SVD, Cholesky decomposition, positive definite matrices, eigenvalues and eigenvectors, and Gaussian elimination. Make sure to understand concepts related to floating point arithmetic, error analysis, and algorithm stability.

Uploaded by

sinahamsas
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as TXT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

i have a an exam from Numerical Linear Algebra and Applications, Biswa Nath Datta,

for my universty
i will send the Contents of the book.
my teacher told me about exam would be from this subjects:
‫اعداد ممیز شناور‬
‫خظای نسبی و مطلق‬
‫ تجزیه ماتریسی‬qr
‫ تجزیه ماتریسی‬lu ‫با محور و بدون محور‬
svd
Cholesky
‫ماتریس های معین مثبت‬
‫مقدار ویژه‬
‫بردار ویژه‬
‫حذف گواسی‬
‫دستگاه خطی‬
‫عدد حالت‬
‫پایداری‬

- give me the list of chepter that shuld i read form book

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

0.1 Special
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . xvii
0.2 Additional Features and Topics for Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . xix
0.3 Intended Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xx
0.4 Some Guidelines for Using this Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . xx
0.4.1 A First Course in Numerical Linear Algebra (Advanced Undergraduate/One
Semester) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . xxi
0.4.2 A Second Course in Numerical Linear Algebra (Beginning Graduate Course) . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. xxi
0.4.3 A One-Semester Course in Numerical Linear Algebra for Engineers . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
xxii
0.5 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

1 Linear Algebra Problems, Their Importance, and Computational Difficulties . . . .


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Fundamental Linear Algebra Problems and Their
Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Computational Difficulties Using Theoretical Linear Algebra
Techniques . . . . . . 3

2 A Review of Some Required Concepts from Core Linear Algebra . . . . . . . 7


2.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Orthogonality, Subspace, and
Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3.1 Range and Null Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Rank of a
Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 12
2.3.3 The Inverse of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.4 Similar Matrices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Some Special Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.1 Diagonal and Triangular
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4.2 Unitary and Orthogonal Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 15
2.4.3 Symmetric and Hermitian
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.4 Hessenberg Matrices (Almost Triangular) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 16
2.5 Vector and Matrix Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5.1 Vector
Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 17
2.5.2 Matrix
Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 18
2.5.3 Norms and
Inverses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 22
2.5.4 Norm Invariant Properties of Orthogonal and Unitary Matrices . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Singular Value
Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.7 Review and
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 24
2.7.1 Special
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 24
2.7.2 Rank, Determinant, Inverse, and Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 24
2.7.3 Vector and Matrix Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 24
2.8 Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 24
Exercises on Chapter
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 25
3 Floating Point Numbers and Errors in Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29

3.1 Floating Point Number Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


. . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Rounding Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.3 Laws of Floating Point Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 33
3.4 Addition of n Floating Point
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Multiplication of n Floating Point
Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.6 Inner Product Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Error Bounds for Floating Point Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 39
3.8 Round-Off Errors Due to Cancellation and Recursive Computations . . . . . . 40
3.9 Review and
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 44
3.10 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Exercises on Chapter
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 45

4 Stability of Algorithms and Conditioning of


Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

4.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.1 Computing the Norm of a
Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.2 Computing the Inner Product of Two
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.1.3 Solution of an Upper Triangular
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.4 Solution of a Lower Triangular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 51
4.2 Efficiency of an
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 52
4.3 Definition and Concept of Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 52
4.4 Conditioning of the Problem and Perturbation Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 57
4.5 Conditioning of the Problem, Stability of the Algorithm, and Accuracy of the
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.6 Perturbation Analysis of the Linear System
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.6.1 Effect of Perturbation on the Right-Hand Side Vector
b . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.6.2 Effect of Perturbation in the Matrix
A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.6.3 Effect of Perturbations in Both Matrix A and Vector b . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 65
4.7 Some Properties of the Condition Number of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 67
4.7.1 Some Well-Known Ill-Conditioned
Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.7.2 How Large Must the Condition Number Be for Ill-Conditioning? . . . . . . 69
4.7.3 The Condition Number and Nearness to Singularity . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
4.7.4 Examples of Ill-Conditioned Eigenvalue Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 70
4.8 Some Guidelines for Designing Stable Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 72
4.9 Review and
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 72
4.9.1 Conditioning of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 72
4.9.2 Stability of an Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 73
4.9.3 Effects of Conditioning and Stability on the Accuracy of the Solution . . . .
74
4.10 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Exercises on Chapter
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 74

5 Gaussian Elimination and LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


. . . . . 81

5.1 A Computational Template in Numerical Linear


Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 LU Factorization Using Gaussian Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 82
5.2.1 Creating Zeros in a Vector or Matrix Using Elementary Matrix . . . . . . . .
83
5.2.2 Triangularization Using Gaussian
Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.2.3 Permutation Matrices and Their Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 96
5.2.4 Gaussian Elimination with Partial Pivoting (GEPP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 97
5.2.5 Gaussian Elimination with Complete Pivoting (GECP) . . . . . . . . . . . .
104
5.2.6 Summary of Gaussian Elimination and LU Factorizations . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.3 Stability of Gaussian Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 106
5.4 Summary and Table of
Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.4.1 Elementary Lower Triangular
Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.4.2 LU
Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 110
5.4.3 Stability of Gaussian Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 110
5.4.4 Table of
Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 110
5.5 Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 110
Exercises on Chapter
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 111

6 Numerical Solutions of Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


. . . . . . 117

6.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2 Basic Results on Existence and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 118
6.3 Some Applications Giving Rise to Linear Systems
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
6.3.1 An Electric Circuit Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 119
6.3.2 Analysis of a Processing Plant Consisting of Interconnected Reactors . . 120
6.3.3 Linear Systems Arising from Ordinary Differential Equations: A Case Study on
a Spring-Mass Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6.3.4 Linear Systems Arising from Partial Differential Equations: A Case Study on
Temperature Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
6.3.5 Approximation of a Function by a Polynomial: Hilbert System . . . . . . 128
6.4 LU Factorization Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 129
6.4.1 Solution of the System Ax = b Using LU Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . .
129
6.4.2 Solution of Ax = b Using Factorization: MA =
U . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.4.3 Solution of Ax = b without Explicit Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 132
6.4.4 Solving a Linear System with Multiple Right-Hand Sides . . . . . . . . . .
134
6.5 Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
6.6 Concluding Remarks on the Use of Gaussian Elimination for Linear Systems . .
136
6.7 Inverses and
Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 136
6.7.1 Avoiding Explicit Computation of the
Inverses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.7.2 The Sherman-Morrison Formula for Matrix Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
137
6.7.3 Computing the Inverse of an Arbitrary Nonsingular Matrix . . . . . . . . .
138
6.7.4 Computing the Determinant of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 139
6.8 Effect of the Condition Number on Accuracy of the Computed Solution . . . . 139
6.8.1 Conditioning and Pivoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 140
6.8.2 Conditioning and
Scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.9 Computing and Estimating the Condition Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 141
6.10 Componentwise Perturbations and the Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 143
6.11 Iterative Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
6.12 Special Systems: Positive Definite, Diagonally Dominant, Hessenberg, and
Tridiagonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 146
6.12.1 Special Linear Systems Arising from Finite Difference Methods . . . . . .
147
6.12.2 Special Linear Systems Arising from Finite Element Methods . . . . . . . 150
6.12.3 Symmetric Positive Definite
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.12.4 Hessenberg
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
158
6.12.5 Diagonally Dominant
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
6.12.6 Tridiagonal Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 161
6.13 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.13.1 Numerical Methods for Arbitrary Linear System Problems . . . . . . . . . 167
6.13.2 Special
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 168
6.13.3 Inverse and
Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
168
6.13.4 The Condition Number and Accuracy of
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.13.5 Iterative
Refinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 169
6.14 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Exercises on Chapter
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 170

7 QR Factorization, Singular Value Decomposition, and Projections . . . . . 181

7.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7.2 Householder's Matrices and QR Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 183
7.2.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 183
7.2.2 Householder's Method for QR Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 188
7.3 Complex QR
Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 194
7.4 Givens Matrices and QR
Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
7.4.1 Definition and Basic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 194
7.4.2 Givens Method for QR
Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.4.3 QR Factorization of a Hessenberg Matrix Using Givens Matrices . . . . . . 201
7.5 Classical and Modified Gram-Schmidt Algorithms for QR Factorizations . . . .
202
7.6 Solution of Ax = b Using QR Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 208
7.7 Projections Using QR
Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.7.1 Orthogonal Projections and Orthonormal
Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
7.7.2 Projection of a Vector onto the Range and the Null Space of a Matrix . . 210
7.7.3 Orthonormal Bases and Orthogonal Projections onto the Range and Null Space
Using QR Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
210
7.8 Singular Value Decomposition and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 211
7.8.1 Singular Values and Singular
Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
7.8.2 Computation of the SVD (MATLAB Command) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
7.8.3 The SVD of a Complex Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 213
7.8.4 Geometric Interpretation of the Singular Values and Singular Vectors . . .
214
7.8.5 Reduced SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 214
7.8.6 Sensitivity of the Singular
Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
7.8.7 Norms, Condition Number, and Rank via the SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
216
7.8.8 The Distance to Singularity, Rank-Deficiency, and Numerical Rank via the
SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 217
7.8.9 Numerical Rank. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 219
7.8.10 Orthonormal Bases and Projections from the SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
220
7.9 Some Practical Applications of the
SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7.10 Geometric Mean and Generalized Triangular Decompositions . . . . . . . . . .
226
7.11 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.11.1 QR Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.11.2 The SVD, GMD, and
GTD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7.11.3
Projections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 228
7.12 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Exercises on Chapter
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 228

8 Least-Squares Solutions to Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


. . . . . 237

8.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
8.2 Geometric Interpretation of the Least-Squares Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 238
8.3 Existence and
Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 239
8.3.1 Existence and Uniqueness
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
8.3.2 Normal Equations, Projections, and Least-Squares Solutions . . . . . . . .
241
8.4 Some Applications of the Least-Squares
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.4.1 Polynomial-Fitting to Experimental
Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
8.4.2 Predicting Future Sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . 245
8.5 Pseudoinverse and the Least-Squares Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 245
8.6 Sensitivity of the Least Squares
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
8.7 Computational Methods for Overdetermined Problems: Normal Equations, QR, and
SVD Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 252
8.7.1 The Normal Equations Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 252
8.7.2 QR Factorization Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 254
8.7.3 The SVD
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 259
8.7.4 Solving the Linear System Using the SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 263
8.8 Underdetermined Linear
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
8.8.1 The QR Approach for the Minimum-Norm Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8.8.2 The SVD Approach for the Minimum-Norm Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.9 Least-Squares Iterative
Refinement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.10 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.10.1 Existence and Uniqueness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 269
8.10.2 Overdetermined
Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
8.10.3 The Underdetermined
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.10.4 Perturbation
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
270
8.10.5 Iterative
Refinement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 270
8.10.6 Comparison of Least-Squares
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8.11 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Exercises on Chapter
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 271

9 Numerical Matrix Eigenvalue


Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.1
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
9.2 Eigenvalue Problems Arising in Practical
Applications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9.2.1 Stability Problems for Differential and Difference
Equations . . . . . . . . . 282
9.2.2 Phenomenon of Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 285
9.2.3 Buckling Problem (a Boundary Value Problem) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 286
9.2.4 Simulating Transient Current for an Electric
Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
9.2.5 An Example of the Eigenvalue Problem Arising in Statistics: Principal
Component
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
290
9.3 Localization of Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.3.1 The Gersgorin Disk Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 293
9.3.2 Eigenvalue Bounds and Matrix
Norms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.4 Computing Selected Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
9.4.1 The Power Method, the Inverse Iteration, and the Rayleigh Quotient
Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 296
9.5 Similarity Transformations and Eigenvalue
Computations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
9.5.1 Diagonalization of a Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 305
9.5.2 Numerical Instability of Nonorthogonal
Diagonalization . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
9.5.3 Reduction to Hessenberg Form via Orthogonal Similarity . . . . . . . . . . .
307
9.5.4 Uniqueness of Hessenberg
Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
9.5.5 Eigenvalue Computations Using the Characteristic Polynomial . . . . . . . 313
9.6 Eigenvalue
Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 315
9.6.1 The Bauer-Fike
Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
9.6.2 Sensitivity of the Individual Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 317
9.7 Eigenvector Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.8 The Real Schur Form and QR Iterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 320
9.8.1 The Basic QR
Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
322
9.8.2 The Hessenberg QR Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 324
9.8.3 Convergence of the QR Iterations and the Shift of
Origin . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.8.4 The Double-Shift QR Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 326
9.8.5 Implicit QR Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 327
9.8.6 Obtaining the Real Schur Form A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 331
9.8.7 The Real Schur Form and Invariant Subspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 334
9.9 Computing the Eigenvectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 335
9.9.1 The Hessenberg-Inverse
Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
9.10 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.10.1 Applications of the Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 336
9.10.2 Localization of
Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.10.3 The Power Method and the Inverse Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 337
9.10.4 The Rayleigh Quotient
Iteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.10.5 Sensitivity of Eigenvalues and
Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
9.10.6 Eigenvalue Computation via the Characteristic Polynomial and the Jordan
Canonical Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.10.7 Hessenberg
Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.10.8 The QR Iteration Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 338
9.10.9 Ordering the Eigenvalues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 339
9.10.10 Computing the
Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.11 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Exercises on Chapter
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 341

10 Numerical Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem and Singular Value


Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.2 Computational Methods for the Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . .
352
10.2.1 Some Special Properties of the Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . 352
10.2.2 The Bisection Method for the Symmetric Tridiagonal Matrix . . . . . . . .
354
10.2.3 The Symmetric QR Iteration
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.2.4 The Divide-and-Conquer Method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 359
10.2.5 The Jacobi
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
363
10.2.6 Comparison of the Symmetric Eigenvalue Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
364
10.3 The Singular Value Decomposition and Its Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 365
10.3.1 The Relationship between the Singular Values and the Eigenvalues . . . 366
10.3.2 Sensitivity of the Singular Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 367
10.3.3 Computing the Variance-Covariance Matrix with SVD . . . . . . . . . . . .
367
10.3.4 Computing the Pseudoinverse with SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 368
10.3.5 Computing the
SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
10.3.6 The Golub-Kahan-Reinsch
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
10.3.7 The Chan SVD Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 378
10.4 Generalized
SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 379
10.5 Review and Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . 380
10.5.1 The Symmetric Eigenvalue Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 380
10.5.2 The
SVD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 380
10.6 Suggestions for Further
Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
Exercises on Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 381

11 Generalized and Quadratic Eigenvalue


Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
11.2 Eigenvalue-Eigenvector Properties of Equivalent
Pencils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
11.3 Generalized Schur and Real Schur
Decompositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
11.4 The QZ Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
11.4.1 Stage I: Reduction to Hessenberg Triangular Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 391
11.4.2 Stage II: Reduction to the Generalized Real Schur Form . . . . . . . . . . .
393
11.5 Computations of Generalized Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 398
11.6 The Symmetric Positive Definite Generalized Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . .
399
11.6.1 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of Symmetric Definite Pencil . . . . . . . . .
399
11.6.2 Conditioning of the Eigenvalues of the Symmetric Definite Pencil . . . . .
400
11.6.3 The QZ Method for the Symmetric Definite
Pencil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
11.6.4 The Cholesky QR Algorithm for the Symmetric Definite Pencil . . . . . . .
401
11.6.5 Diagonalization of the Symmetric Definite Pencil: Simultaneous
Diagonalization of A and
B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
11.6.6 Generalized Rayleigh
Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
11.7 Symmetric Definite Generalized Eigenvalue Problems Arising in Vibrations of
Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 405
11.7.1 Vibration of a Building: A Case
Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
11.7.2 Forced Harmonic Vibration; Phenomenon of Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.8 Applications of Symmetric Positive Definite Generalized Eigenvalue Problem to
Decoupling and Model
Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
11.8.1 Decoupling of a Second-Order
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
11.8.2 The Reduction of a Large Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 415
11.8.3 A Case Study on the Potential Damage of a Building Due to an
Earthquake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 415
11.9 The Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 418
11.9.1 Orthogonality Relations of the Eigenvectors of Quadratic Matrix Pencil . 419
11.9.2 Applications of the Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 421
11.9.3 Numerical Methods for the Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem. . . . . . . . . .
422
11.10 Review and
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 424
11.10.1 Existence Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 424
11.10.2 The QZ
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 424
11.10.3 The Generalized Symmetric Eigenvalue
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
11.10.4 The Quadratic Eigenvalue
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
11.11 Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 426
Exercises on Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 427

12 Iterative Methods for Large and Sparse Problems: An Overview . . . . . . . 435

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
12.2 The Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel, and SOR
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
12.2.1 Convergence of the Jacobi, Gauss-Seidel, and SOR Methods . . . . . . . . 438
12.3 Krylov Subspace Methods for Linear Systems: Lanczos, Arnoldi, GMRES, Conjugate
Gradient, and QMR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
445
12.3.1 The Basic Arnoldi Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 446
12.3.2 Solving Ax = b Using the Arnoldi
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
12.3.3 The GMRES Method for Solving Ax =
b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
12.3.4 Solving Shifted Linear Systems Using the Arnoldi Method. . . . . . . . . .
454
12.3.5 The Symmetric Lanczos
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
12.3.6 The Conjugate Gradient
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
12.3.7 Solving Indefinite Symmetric Systems Using CG-Type Methods: MINRES and
SYMMLQ. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
12.3.8 The Nonsymmetric Lanczos
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
12.3.9 Solving Linear System Ax = b Using the Lanczos Algorithm . . . . . . . . 464
12.3.10 The Bi-conjugate Gradient Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . 464
12.3.11 The QMR Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 466
12.4
Preconditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
12.4.1 Classical Iterative Methods as Preconditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 468
12.4.2 Polynomial Preconditioners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 468
12.4.3 Incomplete LU (ILU) Factorization as a Preconditioner . . . . . . . . . . .
469
12.4.4 Preconditioning with Incomplete Cholesky Factorization . . . . . . . . . . .
469
12.4.5 Numerical Experiments on Performance Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
470
12.5 Comparison of Krylov Subspace Methods for Linear Systems . . . . . . . . . . .
. 470
12.6 Eigenvalue Approximation Using Krylov Subspace Methods . . . . . . . . . . . .
473
12.6.1 Eigenvalue Approximation Using the Arnoldi Method . . . . . . . . . . . . .
474
12.6.2 Implicitly Restarted Arnoldi Method for the Nonsymmetric Eigenvalue
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . 475
12.6.3 Computing the Eigenvalues of a Symmetric Matrix Using the Symmetric Lanczos
Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 477
12.7 The Bisection Method for the Tridiagonal Symmetric Positive Definite
Generalized Eigenvalue
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 478
12.7.1 The Bisection Method for Tridiagonal A and B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 479
12.8 Krylov Subspace Methods for Generalized Eigenvalue Problems . . . . . . . . .
479
12.9 Krylov Subspace Methods for the Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . .
481
12.10 The Jacobi-Davidson Method for the Quadratic Eigenvalue Problem. . . . . . .
482
12.11 Review and
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . 483
12.11.1 The Classical Iterative Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 483
12.11.2 Krylov Subspace Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 484
12.11.3 Large Eigenvalue
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
12.12 Suggestions for Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 485
Exercises on Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . 486

13 Some Key Terms in Numerical Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


. . . 493

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523

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