CHAPTER – 19

Hazards and Risks Identification, Assessment

and Control Techniques
THEME

1. Safety Appraisal, Analysis and Control 3.4 Agencies investigations Accidents

Techniques : 3.5 Accident Analysis (Classification)
1.1 Objectives 3.6 Industrial Classification (NIC,
1987)
1.2 Safety Appraisal System 3.7
Accident Investigation Report and
1.3 Damage Control its Content
1.4 Total Loss Control (TLC) 3.8
Methods of Collating and Tabulating Data
1.5 Job Safety Analysis (JSA) 3.9 Follow
up for corrective action
1.6 Safety Inventory System 3.10 Record
keeping
1.7 Product Safety 4 Hazard and Risk Assessment
Techniques
1.8 Safety Work Permit. 4.1 Hazards, Risks &
Detection Techniques
1.9 Safety Tag System 4.2 Hazard and Risk
Progression Chart
1.10 Standard (Safe) Operating Procedure 4.3
Risk Analysis, Assessment and Management
(SOP) 4.4 Preliminary Hazard Analysis
(PHA) &
1.11 Incident Recall Technique Hazard
Analysis (HAZAN)
1.12 Critical Incident Review Technique 4.5
Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
1.13 Procedures Analysis 4.6 Hazard and
Operability (HAZOP) Study
1.14 Methodical Analysis 4.7 Hazard Ranking (DOW
and MOND Index)
1.15 Technique for Human Error Rate 4.8
Fault Tree Analysis (FTA)
Prediction (THERP) 4.9 Event Tree Analysis
(ETA)
1.16 PERT and CPM 4.10 Accident or Cause
Consequence Analysis
1.17 Safety Codes and Standards Including
4.11 Maximum Credible Accident Assessment
ISO 14001 & OHSAS 18001 (MCAA)
1.18 Safety Steward System 4.12 Vulnerability
Analysis
1.19 Circuit Approach to Safety 4.13 “What
if” Analysis

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 1 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2. Plant Safety Inspection : 5 Reliability Engineering :
2.1 Definitions and Objectives 5.1
Principles of Reliability Engineering
2.2 Types and procedures 5.2 Application of
Reliability Engineering
2.3 Non Destructive Testing (NDT) 5.3
Concepts of Critical Equipment and Devices
2.4 Safety Checklists 6. Major Accident Hazard (MAH)
Control :
2.5 Safety Survey 6.1 Concept of MAH
2.6 Safety Study 6.2 Types and Consequence of
MAH
2.7 Safety Tour 6.3 Criteria (Identification) for the
Plant
2.8 Safety Review to be under MAH unit.
2.9 Safety Sampling 6.4 Role of the
Management
2.10 Contact Scheme 6.5 Role of the Authorities
2.11 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) 6.6
Role of the Workers & Public
2.12 Recommendations & Follow-up 6.7 Role of
the Public
Actions (Compliance) 6.8 Safety Report,
Safety Audit Report & Risk
2.13 Responsibility for Inspections
Assessment Report
3. Accident Investigation, Analysis 7. On-site and Off-site Emergency Plans :
and Reporting : 7.1 Need and Types of Emergency Plans
3.1 Philosophy 7.2 Statutory Provisions
3.2 Purposes of Investigation and Report 7.3
On-site Emergency Plan
3.3 Process and Types of Investigation 7.4
Off-site Emergency Plan

1 SAFETY APPRAISAL, ANALYSIS AND CONTROL

TECHNIQUES
1.1 Objectives :

1 To appraise means to set a value on. Safety appraisal, therefore, includes all
ways and means to measure and indicate the value of any plant, machinery,
process, method, exposure etc. in terms of their individual and total safety
effectiveness, performance, maintenance and control techniques. This is the first
step of any safety organisation in its march toward accident or loss prevention
programme.

2. Safety appraisal are of many types. :

(A) Qualitative appraisal is carried out to find the area where safety
improvement is necessary. It includes techniques of inspection, audit,
review, analysis, study etc. for the exclusive purpose of safety. Previous
approval of plant and building, machinery layout, safety measures

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 2 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 provided and to be provided are required under the Factories. Act and
Rules for this objective.
(B) Quantitative appraisal is the method of computing accident frequency,
severity, incidence and their index rate as we studied in Part 11.2 of
Chapter-5. Frequency rate is useful in comparing safety performance of
different units in a given time, while severity rate is useful in comparing
safety performance of the same unit in different periods. Significance and
utility of such injury rates are explained in details in Chapter-5.
(C) Preventive appraisal includes preventive maintenance before any accident
occurs. Plant safety sampling, safety survey, faulttree analysis, risk
analysis. HAZOP and HAZAN studies, safety inventory, system safety,
safety standards, safety permit system, safety tag and lockout, safety
steward etc. are used for this purpose. Inspections by the plant personnel.
Safety Officer, safety expert and factory inspectors must be utilised for this
objective.
(D) Corrective appraisal includes corrective maintenance after any accident
takes place or any defect (crack, corrosion, wear & tear etc.) detected. If
such damage/injury valuation and repairing is not carried out, it will
continue the interruption of activity and ill-effect on health and safety.
Accident investigation, analysis, identifying the key facts, accident potential
and causes, application of the remedy (corrective action) are carried out for
this objective.

3. Statutory appraisal tests and records are prescribed as a minimum- measure

necessary. Testing of boilers, pressure vessels, lifting machinery, fire safety,
monitoring and analysis of toxic, flammable, explosive or harmful environment and
medical health check-ups .of workers are prescribed under the Factories Act and
Rules. Water/Air Pollution Control Acts, Environment (Protection) Act & Rules and
similar statutes are also for this objective.

4. Organised industrial safety is, now, recognised as an integral part of routine

industrial operations. Inspections of plant, machinery, tools, equipment, premises,
work practices, processes, procedures and general environment must be carried
out for the health and safety of plant-people and surrounding. On-site and Offsite
Emergency Plans are also useful in this regards.

5. To assess the overall standard of safety performance the concept of Safety Audit
developed by Chemical Industries Association is also useful in non-chemical
industry.

6. The concepts of Total Loss Control and Total Loss Prevention are also useful to
measure and maintain the levels of safety.

7. As we have seen in Part 4 of Chapter-5, indirect cost of accident is more than the
direct cost of compensation and medical expenses. Injured party can also sue the
employer. Similarly compensation is also payable for breach of product safety. A
manufacturer may be economically out due to such accident losses. Therefore he
must seriously think to save such high costs and losses by adopting good safety
appraisal systems.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 3 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 1.2 Safety Appraisal System :

Safety appraisal system is a system, method, practice or procedure to measure

the safety performance or standards for the purpose of evaluating its effectiveness and
reliability, to find out drawbacks or deficiency if any and to suggest the safety measures
to raise its safety value.

For this broad aspect, safety appraisal system includes many techniques of
measurement and control. It is desirable to adopt it as a regular practice of plant safety
inspection or safety auditing before any accident occurs. Measurement of injury
frequency rate, severity rate, incidence rate, safety activity rate and total cost of accident
is an quantitative appraisal system. The qualitative system includes statutory safety
approval, inspection, checklists and follow up, design and construction safety, process &
product safety, safety checks and standards, machine guarding, good house keeping
and maintenance, chemical safety, engineering controls, use of safety devices and
equipment, safety survey, safety sampling, hazard/risk detection, measurement,
assessment and control techniques, safety study, safety tour .safety training, safety
observation plan, damage or loss control, job safety analysis, critical incidence
technique, fault tree analysis, HAZOP and HAZAN, safe inventory, system safety, circuit
approach to safety, safety permit system, total loss control, safety stewardship scheme,
plant safety inspection, checklist and audit, safely recommendations and compliance,
accident investigation, fact finding, analysis, selection and application of remedy, report
writing and maintaining good safety records to check safety performance at any time.
On-site and Off-site emergency plans are useful to plan and handle emergencies and
control major hazards. All factories should prepare their on-site emergency plans from
their own resources. This will be useful to minimise heavy accidental losses. All these
systems are explained below in brief :

1.3 Damage Control:

Damage means severity of injury or physical, functional or monetary loss that

could result if control of a hazard is lost.

Damage Control is directly concerned with the protection of machinery, materials

and manufactured goods assets from accidental loss within the factory. Indirectly it is
concerned with money asset and manpower asset.

The Problem of Damage Accident was highlighted by H. W. Heinrich some 75

years ago. He analysed 75000 accidents and concluded that an accident can result in
human injury and damage to property or both and the causes of injury and damage are
similar - lack of skill, knowledge, unsafe system etc. Frank Bird (USA)'s study of 90,000
accidents in 1959 revealed that damage accidents were 5 times more frequent than
injury accidents. He concluded that for 145 disabling injuries there were 15000 other
injuries and 75000 property damage accidents. He carried out second study in 1966 of
17,53,498 accidents of 297 industries employing 17,50,000 workers. He concluded that
30.2 property damage accidents were reported for each disabling injury. He pointed out
the ratio 1-100500 of disabling injury (1),to minor injuries (100),and incidents with no
visible injury or damage (500). Similar other researches also conclude that damage
accidents outnumber personal injuries and then account for greater loss then injury

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 4 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 accidents. In spite of this fact/ is it not strange that safely programmes are more oriented
to injury prevention than damage prevention?

Impediment to damage control was due to old definition of accident considering

personal injury only, and referring property damage accident as ' no injury accident ' The
modern definition_of accident is ' an unintended event that results in physical harm to a
person or damage to property'. Un-r,eporting or underreporting of damage accidents, no
statutory requirement (except dangerous occurrence) and failure to set up a realistic
programme to damage control are other impediments.

Therefore damage control problem should be property recognised to prevent all

accidents causing (a) damage to plant, machinery, equipment, tools, building and other
property (b) loss of quantity or quality of materials during storage, handling and transport
and (c) delay to process, function or activity due to need of repair or replacement.

Benefits of damage control scheme are :

1. Reduction in potential accidents and chance of injury accidents.

2. Reduction in severe injuries, production delay, and costs of maintenance,
replacement and damaged materials.
3. Detection of unsafe conditions and unsafe actions which may contribute to
injuries.
4. Increase of quality control, profit, importance and status of safety organisation,
awareness of supervisors and management to control property damage.
5. Suggestion of remedial measures to prevent recurrence.

Steps to introduce good damage control programme are as follows :

1 Spot checking : Includes visiting repair centres, making observation and taking
notes.

2 Damage Reporting and Investigation : All unplanned or unintended happenings

likely to cause personal injury must be reported by workers and supervisors to
management. Such cases should be property investigated and corrected.

3 Damage Costing and Auditing : Cost of repairs arising out of accidental damage
must be marked by 'D', accounted for and their records must be maintained. A full
time damage control inspector can audit all work orders, conduct regular
inspections, spot checking of repair centres and analysing damage cost factors.

Computation of direct and indirect cost of damage accidents should be

carried out as explained in Part 4 of Chapter-5. Another method is Ledger cost
concept which is concerned with damage to machines, equipment, materials and
loss of production time. Having worked out the damage cost for full year, the cost-
severity rate can be evolved by the formula -

Cost-severity Rate = Total cost of accidents x 106

Total production man-hours

This property damage severity rate can be compared from year to year.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 5 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 4 Remedial Engineering : Collecting data of repetitive repairs to equipment and
property from repair shop, redesign of equipment, revision of layout or work
method and engineering controls should be implemented to prevent those
damage accidents.

1.4 Total Loss Control (TLC)

The Concept clarified : The concept of Accident Prevention when applied to

prevent human injuries only, it is called Injury Prevention or Control. When it is applied to
control property (machinery, materials and manufactured goods) damage (losses) only, it
is called Damage Control. When it is applied to control human injuries and property
damage (losses) both, and also extended to include injuries and property damage to
society or surrounding, it is called Total Loss Control (TLC), Total Accident Control (TAC)
or Total Injury Control (TIC). When this concept of total loss control is applied or
achieved by means of engineering controls, it is known as Total Loss Prevention (TLP).

The terms damage control, loss control, loss prevention and risk management are
defined in Chapter-2 with other terms to realise the total concept of safety.

The concept of Total Loss Control is also defined as follows :

It is an evolution from injury prevention to .the control of all business losses by the
application of sound management principles.

It is a system of reporting and controlling all incidents, however small, whether the
associated loss is small or large. All incidents are examined, potential losses estimated
and recommendations are made and acted upon to avoid repetitions.

It is a programme to eliminate unnecessary costs by means of identification of

down grading situations, measurement of the loss potential, selection of methods to
control the situation and finally implementation of the methods within the industrial
enterprise. A down grading incident could be defined as any deviation in accepted
performance levels resulting in injury, occupational sickness or disease, property
damage, fire or explosion, breaches of security, pollution or product liability and business
interruption.

Development of the Concept : Historically, the concept evolved from H. W.

Heinrich's ratio in 1931 that for one serious injury there may be 29 minor injuries and 300
no-injury accidents (Ratio 1-29-300). Frank E Bird, after intensive research in 1966,
gave this ratio as 1-100-500, John A. Fletcher, after a world-wide survey in 1969, gave
this ratio as 1-19-175.

Though this ratio differs because of different study conditions, it proves two
important conclusions: (1) No injury accidents are far greater than the serious or major
injury and (2) It is necessary to control or prevent large number of no - injury and minor
injury accidents for controlling or preventing a major or disabling accident.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 6 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Thus increasing hazards to persons and property because of the industrial
revolution in western countries has developed this TLC concept and now, many books
are available on this subject.

Relevance of Total Loss Control to India : This concept of TLC has great
relevance to India as every loss reduced or eliminated would help to conserve our limited
resources and control prices.

Some Annual Indices of avoidable losses in India are estimated below:

1. Accidental deaths in industries and elsewhere 1,40,000.

2. Non-fatal injuries in factories, 5,00,000.
3. Workmen Compensation being paid Rs. 500 lakhs.
4. ESIC benefits being paid Rs. 20000 lakhs.
5. Loss due to deficiencies in packing, transportation and storage of commodities
like food, cement fertilisers etc. Rs. 5000 crores.
6. Losses due to fire Rs. 2000 Crores.

These figures reveal great opportunity to prevent as many losses as possible by

our collective efforts.

The Fundamentals of Loss Control: Some fundamental principles are given

below :

1. Accidents, unsafe conditions and unsafe actions are symptoms of something

wrong in the management system.
2. Certain sets of circumstances can be predicted to produce sever injuries, which
can be identified and controlled.
3. Safety should be managed like any other company function. Management
must direct the safety efforts by setting achievable goals by planning, organising,
and controlling to achieve them.
4. The key to effective line safety performance is management procedures that fix
responsibility and accountability.
5. The function of safety is to locate and define the operational errors that allow
accidents to occur.

The functions of safety -can be carried out in two ways :

1. By asking wily i.e. searching for root causes and

2. By asking whether or not certain known effective controls are being utilised.

Management for Loss Control : Risks Department, Risk Manager and

Departmental Heads should, first, formulate Total Loss Control Policy for the company.
Loss Prevention Committee should be formed to execute the policy. Responsibility
should be fixed. By special attention to employees selection, placement, training and
participation and adopting safety in design, safety audits and checklists, the goals should
be achieved.

Four Steps procedure is necessary :

1. Identification of hazards.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 7 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2. Evaluation of hazards and their detailed analysis.
3. Planning and implementing measures to reduce hazards and
4. Frequent review.

Application of this procedure brings following benefits :

(a) Mi-nimismg damage to men, machines materials (raw and finished) and methods.
(b) Saving on insurance or better insurance cover at lower cost.

Control measures monitored by the Loss Control Department are:

1. Rules and Regulations.

2. Traffic Laws.
3. Standard Procedure Instructions.
4. Measurement of safety performance by various ratings (Indices).
5. Occupational safety and health standards/ rules.
6. Investigation of Losses and
7. Summary Analysis.

Thus by adopting Total Loss Control we can render the workplace fully safe and
efficient.

1.5 Job Safety Analysis (JSA) :

Purpose & Definition : Job safety Analysis is a procedure of analysing job for the
purpose of finding the hazards in each step and developing safety precautions to be
adopted.

Though this technique tan be applied at any stage, it is most useful at the stage of
planning, design and starting the process.

It can be used to review job method and uncover hazards (a) that may have been
overlooked at the design or planning stage of plant layout, building, machinery,
equipment, tool, workstations, processes etc. (b) that were noticed subsequently (c) that
were resulted from changes in work procedure or personnel. It is the first step in hazard
or accident analysis and safety training. .

It determines details of each job in terms of duties, skills, abilities, qualification,

safety aspect, tools required, methods, sequence of operation and working condition. It is
useful for routine or repetitive job as well as maintenance and short orders.

Advantages (Benefits)

1. It suggests what personal characteristics such as age, sex, qualification, skill,

experience, abilities, physical standards etc. are necessary for selecting a right
man for a right job.
2. The job breakdown sheets are useful to train new workers in proper sequence of
doing the job safely and efficiently.
3. The hazards are noticed before they cause any accident.
4. It suggests preventive measures in advance to avoid accidents.
5. It helps for planned and effective safety inspection and accident investigation.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 8 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 6. It suggests improved job methods, motions, positions, actions and work
standards.
7. Proper organisation of methods consistent with accepted safe and efficient
practices.
8. Preplanning, preparedness and propel performance can be started by executing
properly the requirements of the operation.

Procedure : Four basic steps of simple procedure

1. Select the job.

2. Breakdown the job into successive steps.
3. Identify hazards and potential accidents in each step.
4. Develop safety measures to eliminate above hazards and consequential
accidents. These steps are briefly explained below :

Jobs with potential for more frequent accidents, severe injuries and new jobs
wherein hazards are unknown should be selected first.

The job should be broken down in proper sequence and steps. Operation,
description, hazards (existing or potential) and precautions should be mentioned.

To identify hazards observe the operations as many times as necessary, ask the
operator concerned or others having good knowledge of that job and list the hazards in
each step. Consider all possibilities of accident, failure mode and effect etc.

The safely solution to the hazards noticed may be worked out by (a) finding a new
method to do the job (b) changing the physical conditions creating hazards (c)
eliminating hazards still present or changing the work procedure (d) reducing the need of
doing that job or at least the frequency of the job and (e) suggesting personal protective
equipment if any.

Everything of above findings should be recorded on Job Breakdown Sheet (Job

sheet or Job instruction sheet) and it should be explained to operators and trainees to
perform the job safely.

Job safety analysis should be carried out by a person well conversant with the job.
The supervisor is well suited for this. Where safety officer is appointed he may carry out
the analysis jointly with the supervisor.

Example:

The procedure of Job Safety Analysis is illustrated below.

In a factory rough castings of 15 Kg. are .fettled by hand on a pedestal grinder

(dia 12"). The castings are picked up from nearby store, fettled on the grinder and
replaced on the floor on the other side of the machine. Carry out job safety analysis and
prepare the job breakdown sheet.

Job Breakdown Sheet

Operation Description Hazards Precautions / controls

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 9 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Step
1. Start the job. 1. Breakage of wheel 1. Check and adjust the Guard
2. Contact with wheel 2. Adjust tool rest
3. Flying particles 3. Get wheel dressed if
necessary
4. Use goggles/ shield
2. Pick up the job. 1. Sharp edges 1. Use hand gloves
2. Unsafe gripping or lifting 2. Use Safety shoes
3. Proper method of storing
4. Proper training in lifting.
3. Grind 1. Flying particles 1. Use goggles shield
2. Wheel breakage due to 2. Do not jam
jamming etc. 3. Local exhaust for machine
3. Dust-Silicosis, nuisance and respirator
4. Aprons
5. Gloves
4. Replace the 1. Sharp edges 1. Use hand gloves
job. 2. Fall of casting 2. Use safety shoes
3. Strain and sprain 3. Proper method of storing
4. Proper training in lifting

Further details maybe written at the end of this sheet

1.6 Safety Inventory System :

This method proceeds to analyse quantity of hazardous material and to reduce it

to the minimum possible level, to find out its safe substitute if any, and to find out
necessary control measures to prevent or contain any accident due to it.

See Part 10.8 of Chapter-28 for MSIHC Rule; and Rule 681 of the Gujarat
Factories Rules wherein threshold quantities of chemicals are stated in Schedule-2 and
3. In Sch-2 the quantity varies from 0.75 tonne (for Carbonyl chloride) to 15000 tonnes
(for flammable liquids). In Sch-3 the quantities varies from 1 kg (for many chemicals) to
1250 tonnes (for Ammonium nitrate fertiliser) and 50000 tonnes (for flammable liquids). If
the quantity exceeds this threshold limits, the unit is identified as MAH unit and specific
safety rules are applicable. These rule; include disclosure of safety information,
notification of major accident, notification of industrial activity, safety reports and on-site
and off-site emergency plan. Thus inventory plays now statutory role also.

Threshold Quantities are listed for -

1. Toxic chemicals up to 1 kg.

2. Toxic chemicals > 1 kg and up to 200
3. Highly reactive substances 2t to 1250t.
4. Explosive substances 100 kg to 50t.
5. Flammable substances 15t to 50000t.

Steps suggested by the World Bank and IFC Guidelines to prevent major accident
and to limit their consequences are: Proper design, construction, inspection,
maintenance and operation of storage vessels and process plants, alarms, trips, dump-

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 10 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 tanks, scrubbers, water curtains, emergency procedures; information, training and
protective equipment to workers, and on-site and off-site emergency plans.

It is also suggested that within I km. radius of major hazard, no population should
be allowed and within I to 2 km, limited development of low density such as warehouses
and light industry may be allowed.

See Part 17 of Chapter-18 for some Committee Reports. ,

1.7 Product Safety :

It is a legal responsibility of every manufacturer seller, agent or supplier of each

product to render it safe (non-injurious), otherwise if any harm is caused to a consumer,
buyer, user by that product, legal damages are payable over and above any statutory
compensation, for accidental injuries.

Section 7B of the Factories Act imposes duty upon every designer, manufacturer,
importer or supplier of any article and substance for use in an) factory, to make that
product safe and without risk; to the health of the workers, to carry out necessary test for
this purpose and to supply safety information regarding safe use of that product The
product should conform to the Indian and Foreign (higher) standards.

Negligence or Breach of Warranty should be proved to establish product liability.

The manufacturer is obliged to (1) exercise care in planning, designing and

producing his product, reasonably safe for all users and (2) provide adequate warning
and precautions with the product for the safe use.

Breach of warranty may be expressed (written) or implied (oral). Advertising and

sales literature also amount to warrantees to the ultimate consumer and any remote
consumer can recover damages for breach of these warrantees. Product liability cases
involve heavy direct and indirect costs.

In USA, National Commission on Product Safety estimate that more than 20

million are injured and 30,000 deaths per year due to products. This lead to the
enactment of Consumer Product Safety Act there. The Consumer Protection Act has
also been enacted in our country and Consumers' Councils and Courts work at many
places where complaints regarding 'product' can be launched.

Product safety programme should include clear policy, duties and responsibilities
of personnel in design, manufacturing, quality control, marketing and servicing. The
committee should include Chief Engineer, Sales Manager, Service Manager and
representatives from other departments. The committee shall carry out various functions
such as review of design, change required, safety warning signs and warnings, review of
accidents and claims and education of engineers and operators.

1.8 Safety Work Permit:

Objects and Types : Some jobs in a factory are dangerous to life and therefore
well advanced precautions arc necessary before their commencement and till the

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 11 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 completion. Hot work like welding and cutting, entering any confined vessel, working at
height or on fragile roof, opening of dangerous pipelines, electric work and handling
dangerous chemicals etc. are some example. For the safety from such works, a work
permit system is highly essential.

Work permit system requires that authorisation be issued and obtained before any
work is performed on process. Equipment or area and instruction contained therein must
be strictly followed by the permitted workers till the time limits.

A work permit system should cover the following points

1. Who requires a work permit, e.g. contractors, engineers, maintenance workers,
etc.
2. What jobs require a work permit, e.g. all maintenance work, tank cleaning,
electrical inspections, etc.
3. What types of permit are available :

General work permit For work of a non-hazardous or ‘cold’ work

type.
Special work permit For work on live equipment, or hot work.
Confined spaced entry permit For work involving entry into confined spaces
such as tanks, sewers, excavations where
toxic or flammable vapours may be present.
Gas Test Certificate This may form part of the above permits and
specifies what gas tests are necessary at
particular periods.
Electrical Isolation Certificate Specifies what electrical isolations are
required and whether locks, earths, notices
are to be applied.
There are will be occasions when the work to be done requires all the above permits and
certificates to be issued.

4. Who is responsible for issuing work permits a list should be compiled by

management authorising specific persons to be responsible.
5. Arrangements for recording the issue, revalidation and retention periods of
permits.

Most Commonly used permits are fire or hot work permit, safe (vessel) entry
permit, excavation permit, electrical work permit, chemical area work permit, high height
or depth permit and so on.

Who Issues and to Whom : Work permit is issued by supervisor, safety officer or
responsible officer of the area and equipment. It is generally issued in the name of a
supervisor or technician who has to carry out the required job under his direct
supervision.

Contents of the permit : Some contents may very according to the permit but
generally the contents are : Name of the supervisor or person to whom it is issued,
workplace, equipment, name of the work to be carried out, date and time of start and
completion, personnel permitted, details of actions, conditions, equipment, procedure
and precautions from the authority who issues it.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 12 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
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 The elements of a permit to work system are :

1. Hazards of the plant, chemicals and work are fully explained to the workers
involved.
2. Instructions are in details and fully understood by both the parties.
3. Work area should be clearly identified, made safe or the hazards highlighted.
4. In-charge of the area who issues the permit, should be competent and responsible
and should sign the document stating that he is satisfied regarding necessary
isolation, blanketing etc. completed and it is made safe for the workers to work in
that area.
5. The in-charge of the team of workers, who receives the permit must sign the
permit stating that he has fully understood the work to be carried out, the hazards
potential, precautions, conditions and procedure and the PPE/FFE to be utilized.
6. Any monitoring including gas testing required before, during and after the work
should be specified and the results noted on the document.
7. When the work is completed (after necessary extension of the permit if work
continues), the work in-charge signs off the permit stating that the specified work
has been completed and the plant is in a suitable state to return to operations.
8. The area in-charge signs to accept that the work has been completed and he now
accepts the responsibility.

Formats : A format can be designed according to the work but it should cover
above mentioned eight points. More care is required when the permit is to be given to a
contractor's workers. Necessary equipment must be supplied to them. Some formats are
given in Table 19.1 to 19.3.

Table 19.1 : General Format : Safety Work Permit

Permit to work Name & Address of the Factory : Permit No. __________
Date :
Date & Time of Issue ______________________
Date & Time of Extension if any ______________________
Date & Time of Validity ______________________
Date & Time of Work Completion
and Return of the Permit ______________________
A. Issue
1. Location of work
2. Work to be done
3. Hazards involved
4. Precautions / conditions necessary
5. Equipment to be used
6. Procedure to be followed
7. Special instructions
8. Prior work done and certified.
Necessary isolation, cleaning, purging and testing/ monitoring is done and reported
below with results :

Name & Designation Signature Validity Ratification

of the Area-in-charge Date Date by the Safety

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 13 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Time Time Department
B. Acceptance
I have read and understood this permit and will carry out the work as per directions stated
above.

Name & Designation Signature Validity Ratification

of the Area-in-charge Date Date by the Safety
Time Time Department
C. Acceptance

I have re-examined the situation above and hereby extend this permit to expire at
Date ______________ Time ______________

Further instructions if any :

Signature Date Time

D. Completion and Cancellation

I certify that the work is completed and the plant can be put to its normal operation.

Signature Date Time

(By the person who accepted the permit)

I accept the above plant back into service. The permit is cancelled hereby. A new permit will be
required if work is to be done again.

Signature Date Time

(By the person who accepted the permit)
N.B. : Detailed instructions shall be written in this document. Where possible. Part A shall
be- ratified by the Safety Department.

Table 19.2 : General Format : Safety Work Permit

Permit to Work

Permit
No.______
Date:
Procedure used shall be in accordance with safety instructions
(Give consideration to each word. Strike out those not applicable)

Name & Address of the Factory :

Plant___________ Section/Equipment ________ Valid Until Date _______ Time
:_____Hrs.____

PART - A ; Preparation________

A-l Following Hazards are possible.

 Gas/Fume
 Corrosive, Hot & other Liquid

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 14 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
  Gas or liquid under Pressure
 Toxic Materials
 Dust
 Fire & Explosion
 Hot Metal
 Trace Heating
 Steam Condensate
 Falling Objects
 Electricity Mains/Static Electricity/Shock
 Moving Machinery
 Overhead Hazards, Cranes etc.
 Underground Service
 Traffic (Road & Rail)
 Radio active substances
 Noise
 Work at
 Height
 Other (Specify)

A-2 Physical Isolation

 Physical isolation is required/not required
The Equipment isolation permit No. _____________________________
Method of Isolation
 Single/Double isolation, valve closed/blind/tagged (no.
 Lines slip plated
 Physical disconnection : open and blanked off
 Vent. Drain or blow off open

A-3 Precautions already taken :

___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
 A-4 Hotwork Permit:
A hotwork permit is not necessary.
A hotwork permit is necessary, permit issued no.
A-5 Vessel Entry Permit :
 A vessel entry permit is not necessary
A vessel entry permit is necessary, permit issued no.

A-6 Installed Radioactive Source:

 There is no installed radioactive source
 There is an installed radioactive .source and is made safe
I have made the installation sate for the duration of tills Permit By
Signature of Qualified person

A-7 Electrical Isolation:

 Electrical isolation is not required
Electrical isolation is required and has been made by following methods and tagged (Tag
No.)
 Fuse withdrawn

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 15 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
  Drive Unit Disconnected / Denergised
 Racked out
 Locked out Name___________ Signed _________________

A-8 Other (e.g. Instrument, Cathodic Protection)

Isolation not required
Isolation required and has been done (Tag. No. ____________)
by (Name) ____________________ Signed
_________________________
A-9 Preparation Completed:
Name Designation Signature

PART - B : Operation

B- 1 Job to be done
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
______________

B-2 Precautions to be taken.

 Wear PVC suit

 Use self breathing apparatus
 Wear PVC, Rubber, Leather, Asbestos etc. gloves
 Use air line respirator
 Wear Ear Muff/Plugs
 Wear a safety belt with life line
 Wear Helmet
 Keep fire extinguisher ready
 Wear Full face shield
 Keep rescuer available
 Wear Goggles
 Use only safety torch/hand lamp
 Use Gas Mask for___________(gas)
 Use only 24 Volts inspection lamp
 Use Dust mask
 Use ELCB

B-3 Removal of Equipment

 Removal of equipment from the site is not required
 Removal of die equipment from the site is required

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 16 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
  The equipment is cleaned
 The equipment is not clean. Take following precautions

B- 4 Special instruction
______________________________________________________________________
______________
______________________________________________________________________
_____________
______________________________________________________________________
______________

PART - C : Issue, Acceptance & Return

C-l Issue and Acceptance

Name Signature Date
and Time

Issued by ______________ ______________

___________
I have read the conditions of this permit
Accepted by ______________ ______________
___________

C-2 Extension of Validity (Please sec on the back)

C-3 Text/Rotation check required
Signature of person making request
_________________________________________
Electricity restored by _______________________ Sign.
________________________
Test run Completed/Rotation check correct Sign
_____________________________
Electricity isolated by _________________________ Sign.
____________________________
C-4 Completion of job
This job is completed :The job site is cleaned and material removed.
Returned by Name & Sign ___________________________ Time and Date
_______________
C-5 In case of hot work permit/vessel entry permit.
The Hotwork permit No. ___________________ is cancelled
The Vessel entry permit No.________________is cancelled
Countersigning person have been informed
Sign. ____________________Name
______________________________________________
C-6 Cancellation
This permit is cancelled. Please restore electricity. Remove or restore radioactive
source/others Name _________________________ Sign ________________
Date & Time ________________
C-7 Installed radioactive sources
I have recommissioned the installation

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 17 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Signature of qualified
person___________________________________________

C-8 Electricity Restored

 Fuse replaced  Racked in

 Drive unit reconnected  Lock removed

Signature ________________ Name

_____________________________________________________

C-9 Other isolation (Specify)

________________________________________________________
Restored by
___________________________________________________________________
Sign________________ Name
___________________________________________________

C-10 Details of job done

_________________________________________________________________
________
_________________________________________________________________
________
_________________________________________________________________
________
_________________________________________________________________
________

(back page) Instructions (See Part C2)

1. The Permit to Work does not ensure that the job is safe but it tells you the exact
state of the job, precautions already taken, precautions to be taken by the
permittee and residual hazards associated with the job Therefore the issuing
authority must give consideration to each point/word and strikeout which is not
applicable or marked D in the appropriate box. The permittee must read the
contents of the permit carefully and follow the instructions and precautions to be
taken.

2. In case of any emergency in the plant, the job shall be stopped and the permit
shall be treated as cancelled. The work can be restarted after the emergency is
over but the permit to work shall be endorsed by the issuing authority before
starting the work.

Extension of Validity

C-2 The job is not yet completed. Therefore this permit requires extension of validity.

Extension of validity Time & Date up to Reasons The permit is extended i.e. revalidated
requested by which the Validity for UPTO :

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 18 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 is requested requesting
Extension
Name Signature Time Date Time Date Name Signature

Table 19.3 : Hot Work Permit

Name & Address of the HOT WORK PERMIT Permit No. :

Factory Date :

A. Job Details :
Requested by ______________________ Dept./Plant ____________ Section
________________
Validity Date _____________________________ Time : From ______ Hrs. To
_________ Hrs.
Location Details
_________________________________________________________________
Description of Work :
____________________________________________________________

B. Precautions : Tick () in the relevant boxes where applicable and score out the
others.

Already taken by operators To be taken by Maintenance

 Equipment has been properly – Tick () in  Sparks can ignite the material in the
the box surrounding areas. Effects protect process
(a) depressurized  (b) Drained  (c) sewers / material / equipment in the vicinity
Washed  from a potential fire hazard. Keep the area
(d) Vented  (e) Purged  (f) Steamed  wet.
(g) gas freed  (h) isolated  (i) blinded Properly ground the equipment and use
insulated welding cable.
 Surrounding area checked and protected  Keep escape route clear.
against hazards of spark / fire.  Keep fire extinguisher ready.
 Sewer openings covered /protected.  Keep fire hose connected with nozzle for
 Frequent explosimeter monitoring required use (not charged)
during continuation of job.  Use only fir proof gloves /suits.
 Keep fire station informed.  Make provision to contain the sparks by
 Standby man available for rescue. shielding the job location from all sides using
 (others) _______________________ fire blankets.

C. Initial Explosimeter Test : (Indicate the exact locations where the tests are
carried out)

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 19 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Sr. Location Explosimeter Date Time Name Signature
No. (LEL) reading

D. Authorisation :

Shri ________________________of Dept. : ____________ Section __________

is hereby given permission to carry out the above work. This permit expires at _____ hrs.
on ______ unless extended, [see (E) below]. Signature of issuing
authority_________________ Date : _________ Time : ______Hr. Approved by :
____________ Signature _____________ Date : ___________ Time : _________Hr.
Signature of accepting authority ___________________Date : ___________Time :
___________Hr.

E. Extention of Validity (To be renewed after every shift, maximum validity 24 hrs.)
(I) Condition at the site checked and found OK. The Explosimeter reading
_____%LEL Time : _______ hr.
The validity of the above permit extended up to : _____ hr. on
____________ (date). Signature (Shift-In-Charge) ______________ Time :
_________: hr. Date : __________ Approved by:
Signature:
(II) Condition at the site checked and found OK. The Explosimeter reading
____%LEL
Time : ______ hr.
The validity of the above permit extended up to : _____ hr. on
____________ (date). Signature (Shift-In-Charge) ______________ Time :
__________ hr. Date : __________ Approved by:
Signature:

F. Work Completion (By the Maintenance Group) :

The work is completed. Area cleaned up. The permit returned to the issuing
authority at
_____hr, Date _______ Name: Signature : ____________________

G. Job Acceptance : (By Issuing Dept.) - The job has been completed and the work
area has been restored in its original condition. Hence, the permit is hereby
cancelled.

Name : Signature Time : ____ hr. Date :

The format of the permit to work should be designed by the safety officer, safety
consultant or an experienced engineer of the company. Well thought precautions and
safety measures can certainly minimise the accidents.

Vessel Entry Permit : Under section 36 (2) of the Factories Act 1948, no person
in any factory shall be required or allowed to enter any confined space (chamber, tank,

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 20 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 vat, pit, pipe, flue etc. having dangerous fumes likely to involve risk) until all practicable
measures have been taken to remove any fumes which may be present and to prevent
any ingress of fumes and unless a certificate in writing has been given by a competent
person based on a test carried out by himself that the space is free from dangerous
fumes and fit for persons to enter or such person is wearing suitable breathing apparatus
and a safety belt securely attached to a rope (life line) die free end of which is held by a
person outside the confined space.

Isolation of the vessel from sources of energy or harmful substance by way of

cooling, disconnection, blinding, blanking etc., draining, cleaning, washing and purging to
make free from toxic gases, testing the air for oxygen or toxicity content, opening top and
bottom connections for good ventilation, lighting and exit, wearing safety belts, helmet
and suitable breathing equipment, allowing low voltage (24 volts) light, standby
arrangement etc. are essential requirements.

See Part 2.2 of Chapter 16 and Part 16.2 of Chapter-18 for safe entry procedure
to confined spaces.

Hot work Permit : For welding and cutting, working with open flames or sparks
due to grinding, chiselling etc. or where hot work is dangerous or may cause fire. Hot
work or Fire Permit is necessary.

The area must, first, be made free from hazards of fire and explosion. Tests for
explosive air mixture or possibility should be carried out. All lines to the vessel shall be
blinded or' disconnected. Sufficient vents and flameproof light shall be provided. Fire
protection and alarm shall be kept ready. Dangerous work shall not be allowed in the
vicinity. Water facility shall be used to extinguish sparks, hot slugs etc.

See Table 19.3 for a Hot Work Permit.

Electrical Work Permit : The model form of permit-to-work is given in IS:5216

(Part-1).

Department of power generation, distribution, control etc. issues permit in the

name of Electrical Engineer/Supervisor in charge of the job to be attended.

Before issuing permit it is ensured that the apparatus concerned is made dead,
earthed and isolated from all live conductor by opening all relevant switches, circuit
breakers, fuses, isolators etc. He who receives the permit, also rechecks to ensure that
there is no possibility of accidental power supply. Then only he starts the work. In case
when the work is continued in the next shift, the permit is transferred in the name of
another person continuing the job. On completion of the job and before returning the
permit for cancellation, it is verified that all persons on the apparatus are withdrawn, and
temporary earth connections are removed. The permit issuing authority rechecks the
apparatus, cancels the permit and energises the apparatus by closing all switches, fuses,
breakers, isolators etc.

Similarly Work Permits can be prepared for other types of hazardous work
keeping their special precautions in mind.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 21 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 It is advisable to use separate permits for separate works instead of using a
common (multiple) form for different works.

All contractors and company staff such as engineers and maintenance workers
must be in possession of a valid work permit before they start any job at a company site.
In some instances, operating staff must also have a valid work permit for operating jobs
which may have a hazardous content such as opening a pressurised system, such as a
product filter, pipeline, removing pyrophoric catalyst, working at height etc.

See also Parts 16 of Chapter-18 for further details of work permit system.

1.9 Safety Tag System :

IS:8095 provides specification for accident prevention tags. The tags are used as
a temporary means of warning employees of an existing hazard or to warn them not to
start any switch or operation, because some other person may be injured due to that. For
example, while working in any movable or rotational machine, tag on isolated switch is
necessary. To prevent wrong operation of any switch, valve, control etc., tagging is
essential during repair. It is more useful for new or untrained workers. They should not
be used in place of or as substitute for accident prevention signs. The tag shall be
removed as soon as die hazard is removed or eliminated. 'Do Not Start' tag on power
machine should be provided till the repairing is over and then it should be removed.
Defective equipment tag shall be placed till die defect exists only. Accident prevention
signs are of permanent nature, while the tags are temporary. For safety signs and
colours see IS:9457.

The tag should be in the language understood by the workers.

Type of tags arc : Do not start tags. Danger tags. Radiation tags. Biological
Hazard tags etc. Colours for some tags are prescribed but not the size which should be
suitable .

1.10 Standard (Safe) Operating Procedures (SOP)

Hazardous works or frequently required jobs need standard and safe operating
procedures. If they are well defined and described beforehand and available in the form
of ready made document, they are most useful to plant people for easy use. Such
procedures are useful in avoiding and reducing accidents.

Meaning and usefulness:

A Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) is a set of written instructions describing
steps of safe working method and standard engineering practice for hazardous job or
frequently required industrial activity.
It describes technical as well as administrative operating instructions from the
management. It is designed by duly qualified and well experienced technical persons in
the plant. It should be amended and updated based on experience of its use. SOP
standardizes work procedure and avoids variations among different workers. It
establishes uniformity and safety in working methods. It ensures that the same work is
done in the same way by all workers safely and efficiently.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 22 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 SOP should be written correctly. Steps should be chronological. If not written
correctly, it is of limited value. The best written SOP may fail if not followed. Copies of
SOP should be ready available in work areas so that they can be readily used. SOPs are
useful to prevent shortcuts, wrong habits and unsafe practices.

Format for SOP :

SOP should be written in a well designed format. It should be easy to understand.
It should clarify its purpose, method of use, tools, equipment and PPE necessary, work
permit to be used if any etc. Steps and sub steps should be well arranged. SOP should
have title, Sr. or Id. No., Date of preparation. Date and number of revision, steps and
procedure, action by whom and remarks.

Some example of SOP are as under :

1. Nitrogen purging in a reactor.
2. Loading and unloading of tanker of hazardous substance.
3. Safe starting or closing down of a plant.
4. Catalyst loading into a reactor.
5. Flue or toxic gas sampling procedure.

SOP should get approval from the top management including safety department.
It should be reviewed and revised. Checklist can be used to prepare SOP.

1.11 Incident Recall Technique :

This method is based on collecting information on hazards, near-misses, unsafe

conditions and unsafe actions from working people. It can be used to investigate man-
machine relationship and to improve equipment and operations. The technique consists
of interviewing personnel regarding involvement in accidents or near-misses, errors,
mistakes, difficulties and conditions which may cause accident. It accomplishes the same
result as an accident investigation. Even isolated incidents reported by the technique can
be investigated to determine whether corrective action is necessary or advantageous.

Plant people should be given accident case studies for reading and thinking. Then
their memory should be recalled to know their understanding and further suggestions if
any.

1.12 Critical Incident Review Technique:

The Critical Incident Technique by W.E. Tarrants, is a method of identifying or

reviewing potential accident causes by collecting information on unsafe conditions and
actions, near-misses, hazards etc. from experienced plant personnel. It can be used to
study man-machine operational relationship and to use the information to improve
equipment, operations and procedures.

An' experienced reviewer or surveyor first explains to key personnel what he

wants to know. Then he asks each worker individually questions on safety matters.
Workers' involvement in accidents, near misses, mistakes, errors, difficulties in
performance and probable causes of accidents are thoroughly discussed. Their
comments including preventive measures are also asked.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 23 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 It has been estimated that for every mishap there are at least 400 near-misses.
Information on possible accident causes can be obtained from participants of accidents
and non-participants but having knowledge.

When interviews report similar difficulties, hazards or near misses with similar
types of operation or equipment, it indicates an area to be investigated and results of
investigation can suggest the remedial measures necessary.

1.13 Procedures Analysis :

This method reviews the possibilities of accidents due to actions of workpeople.

First of all it checks whether the work method is hazardous or not. It ensures that the
man-machine motion does not endanger the operator in following the method suggested
by the designer or supplier.

A procedure is a set of instructions for sequenced actions to conduct operation,

maintenance, repair, assembly, test, calibration, transportation, handling, emplacement,
removal etc.

Procedure analysis is a review of the actions that must be performed for intended
tasks, the equipment that must be operated or used and the environment in which
personnel must work. Analysis ensures that the procedures are not only effective but
also safe. Hazardous tasks like welding, tank entry etc. must be analysed in detail.

Procedure analysis sheet contains five columns : Task, danger, effect, cause and
corrective or preventive measures. The procedure suggested should contain preparatory
instructions, operating instructions, warning and precautions, checks and tests, step-by-
step instructions to perform operation, stopping instructions and emergency
instructions.

1.14 Methodical Analysis :

In the beginning of 20th century, Gilbreths suggested an orderly examination of an

operation from its first step to the last, tracking the flow of work as it progresses. Symbols
were used to draw a network diagram. Gilbreth's objective was to improve the work
method by eliminating unwanted steps or re-planning the work so as to conserve time
and effort. Safety in itself was not a consideration (Ref. No. 32).

This methodical analysis was the first of the analytical techniques to draw
attention of the safety specialist. It was employed, subsequently with some modification,
to assist in hazard control in manufacturing and as a basis for hazard identification and
analysis.

1.15 Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP) :

Human Error Analysis identifies potential human errors and their effects or
identifies the cause of observed human errors.

The Sandia Corporation developed a method to quantify the likelihood of employee error
in manufacturing operations with the objective of reducing defects (Ref. No. 32).

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 24 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 The method is based on the principle that non-repetitive or infrequent actions may
be difficult or impossible to predict, but the repetitive actions can be studied to determine
human error probability data.

THERP establishes a basic error rate (BER) for selected tasks employing
statistical methods to identify valid human error rates in performing the task. The BER
unit is error per million operations.

Such data of human failure rates is interesting to safety specialists. It is useful for
fault tree analysis discussed in Part 4.8. The data is mean average and may not be
applicable to a particular operator. Skilled operators may commit less errors.

1.16 PERT and CPM :

PERT means programme evaluation review technique and CPM means critical
path method. The first method was developed by US Navy for its Polaris Weapons
Systems in 1958 and at the same time the second method was developed by the Du
Pont Company (Ref. No. 32)

PERT and CPM generally deal with planning, scheduling and logistical problems
involving the availability of materials, equipment etc. at appointed times and places for
the process to flow expeditiously to completion. Safety is not their main objective, but it
can be used for safety purpose.

In its modified form to include safety, PERT and CPM can be directed to (1)
arrange activities so as to minimise the possible bottlenecks and total time (2) obtain an
estimate of total time required to facilitate personnel and material planning to foresee the
probable impact on delivery dates to customers and (3) foresee any possible hazards
and take steps in the planning so as to eliminate or minimise them.

1.17 Safety Codes and Standards :

Codes of practice and standards are normally derived by experienced

professionals and their organisations. Codes and standards transmit experience of
problems and solutions and develop good industrial or engineering practice.

With change in technology and new inventions, revision becomes necessary.

Thus codes and standards should be updated with the current time.

Standards and Codes should be followed in following order:

1. Statutory Standards.
2. Indians Standards (IS) and Codes.
3. International Standards like ISO 9001 & 14001 and OHSAS 18001.

(1) Statutory Standards.

Enacted Safety and other Acts, Rules and Regulations are mandatory or statutory
and require legal compliance, failing which legal action may be instituted. Tlie Factories

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 25 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Act 1948 and Rules made there under prescribe standards for ventilation, artificial humid
ification, workspace, lighting, drinking water, latrines, urinals and spittoons, lifting and
revolving machines, pressure plants, excessive weights, protection of eyes, precautions
in case of fire, toxic exposure, safety of buildings and machinery and welfare facilities.
Factory Inspectors are also appointed to check these standards. It is also a statutory
duty of Safety Officers where they arc legally required.

(2) Indians Standards (IS) and Codes.

If Statutory Standards are not available or if required as additional need, Indian

Standards should be followed. They provide number of Safety & Product Quality
standards. ICI marks are considered as good standards and they raise sale values. It
assures good safety precautions. Indian Standards for safety and health, pressure
vessels, chemicals, gas works etc. are of prime importance and used by good designers.

Codes are made from the groups of Indian or International Standards pertaining to
particular subjects. Vizs. National Building Code, National Electric Code, National Fire
Protection Association (NFPA) Code, American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) Code etc.

Some are voluntary standards which may be followed for safe practices.
Standards are often used for design, testing, certification and approval. Standards may
be changed by time due to new knowledge or experience. Standards and Codes can be
used as basis on which checklists can be prepared by which the plant's facilities,
equipment and operations can be analysed or audited for hazards.

It should also be noted that standards or codes may be lacking in requirements or

the requirements may not be stringent enough for actual conditions or they may not be
applicable. Therefore blind observance of standards is not justifiable. Each hazardous
situation must be examined and analysed-critically for full-proof safety.

(3) International Standards

After compliance of Statutory Standards and Indian Standards, International

Standards should be followed.

Two standards are important for safety of environment and safety from
occupational health hazards. They are as under :

(A) Environment Management 'System (EMS) ISO 14000 and Standard ISO
14001.

Environment is the basic requirement for survival and sustaining life on earth. We
have been blessed environment from our forefathers and it provides us an opportunity to
live long and happily. It is the duty of all of us to protect the quality of this environment
and add our contribution so as to leave a better environment-and adequate resources for
our posterity.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 26 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Developments in Science & Technology have added greatly to the longevity and
quality of human life. These developments have sometimes had flip sides manifesting
most notably in adverse impacts on the environment.
All organizations should have concerned with the protection, promotion and
preservation of environment. Throughout the world, the government, organizations, firms
and individuals are now increasingly concerned for the promotion of environment and
prevention of pollution. All the employees of organization, shall contribute in the
conservation of resources; prevention of pollution and promotion of environment.

It is recommended to implement ISO 14001 Environment Management Systems

(EMS) Standard and request that there shall be no compromise in any manner which
affects the environment at the site and this shall be ensured through strict adherence to
environmental regulations and environment management system procedures; raising
awareness on environment among employees; the contractors/ personnel working at the
site and sharing our knowledge with the surrounding public.

The relations between men, flora, fauna, water, land and air are non-separable
and these relations require to be maintained without affecting the equilibrium which the
Nature has given us the day life began on earth.

All of us shall explore opportunities for the minimization of waste; and shall
endeavour to minimize environmental aspects and impacts arising out of our operations.
We shall ensure that there is zero material waste; full utilization of resources. We shall
protect the plants; animals; birds at our site and shall not cause any harm to them and
our fellow employees.

Advantages of EMS - ISO 14000 :

1. HSE Systems get further strengthened.

2. Fulfillment of national and international HSE requirements, particularly w.r.t.
Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene.
3. Complying local legal requirements and new norms w.r.t. Environmental
Protection published by Government from time to time.
4. Employees' motivation and proud place in industrial society.

What is ISO - 14000?

1. ISO - 14000 is a series of voluntary international standard covering environmental

management tools and systems developed by the International Organization for
Standardization.
2. Intent to provide all industries - whether in manufacturing or service -with a
structure for Environmental Management System.

What is ISO - 14001?

1. It is the standard a company will use to establish its Environmental

Management System.
2. It provides frame works for environmental .management and integrates that frame
work with overall business management activity.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 27 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 3. It is a specification for Environmental Management System for ensuring and
demonstrating compliance with stated Environmental Policy and Objectives of
the Organization

Definitions:
1. Environment - Surrounding in which an organization operates including air,
water, land, natural resources, flora, fauna, humans and their interrelation.
2. Environmental Management System - The part of the overall management system
that includes organizational structure, planning activities, responsibilities,
practices, procedures, process and resources for developing, implementing,
achieving, reviewing and maintaining environmental policy.
3. Environmental Aspect - Element of an organization's activities, products or
services that can interact with the environment.
4. Environmental Impact - Any changes to the environment, whether adverse or
beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organization's activities, products or
services.

Elements of ISO - 14001

1. General Requirements
2. Environmental Policy
3. Planning
(1) Environmental Aspects
(2) Legal & Other Requirements
(3) Objectives & Targets
(4) Environmental Management Program
4. Implementation & Operation
(1) Structure & Responsibility
(2) Training, Awareness and Competence
(3) Communication
(4) Environmental Management System Documentation
(5) Document Control
(6) Operational Control
(7) Emergency Preparedness and Response.

Environmental Management System Model

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 28 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 For details see website : www.isol4000- isol4001-environmental-
[Link]

(B) Occupational Health and Safety Management System 18000 and Standard
18001.

Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Specification (OHSAS) is an

international standard defining requirements related to health and safety management
systems, enabling organization to manage both their operational risks and improve their
performance. .It was developed in 1999.

More and more organizations are increasingly concerned about achieving and
demonstrating sound Occupational Health & Safety performance to their customers,
employees and shareholders, by managing the risks and improving the beneficial effects
of their activities, products and services.

This Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series (OHSAS) specification

gives requirements for an occupational health and safety (OH&S) management system,
to enable an organization to control its OH&S risks and improve its performance. It does
not state specific OH&S performance criteria, nor does it give detailed specifications for
the design of a management system.

This OHSAS specification is applicable to any organization that wishes to:

1. establish an OH&S management system to eliminate or minimize risk to

employees and other interested parties who may be exposed to OH&S risks
associated with its activities;
2. implement, maintain and continually improve an OH&S management system;
3. assure itself of its conformance with its stated OH&S policy;
4. demonstrate such conformance to others;
5. seek certification/registration of its OH&S management system by an external
organization; or

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 29 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 6. make a self-determination and declaration of conformance with this- OHSAS
specification.

All the requirements in this OHSAS specification are intended to be

incorporated into any OH&S management system. The extent of the application will
depend on such factors as the OH&S policy of the- organization, the nature of its
activities and the risks and complexity of its operations.

This OHSAS specification is intended to address occupational health and safety

rather than product and services safety.

The organization shall establish and maintain an OH&S management system, the
requirements for which are set out in clauses.

Advantages of OHSAS 18001 Accreditation.

1. HSE Systems get further strengthened.

2. Fulfilment of national and international HSE requirements, particularly with respect
to Occupational Health and Industrial Hygiene.
3. Complying local legal requirements and new norms with respect to Occupational
Health, Environmental Protection and Safety as published by Government from
time to time.
4. Employees' motivation and proud place in industrial society.

What is OHSAS 18000?

It is an Occupational Health and Safety Management System or Series which

provides a framework for managing OHS responsibilities. The framework is designed to
allow companies to become more efficient and operate in a more integrated manner.

Specifically, OHS management systems specify a process of achieving

continuously improved OHS performance and complying with legislation.

What is OHSAS 18001 ?

OHSAS 18001- 'Occupational Health and Safety Management Specification or

Standard' is an international health and safety management system specification,
embracing BS 8800, AS/NZ 4801, NSAI SR 320 and other publications. It is under
OHSAS 18000.

OHSAS 18001 has been developed to be compatible with the ISO 9001 (Quality)
and ISO 14001 (Environmental) management systems standards.

What is OHSAS 18002?

To compliment OHSAS 18001, the British Standards Institute published OHSAS

18002'Occupational Health and Safety Management Systems Guidelines' to assist in the
implementation of OHSAS 18001.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 30 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 This explains the requirements of the specification and shows companies how to
work towards implementation and registration.

By adopting this package, it will allow companies to :

1. Identify elements of business that impact on health and safety and gain access to
the relevant legislation.
2. Produce objectives for improvement and a management program to achieve
them, with regular reviews for continual improvement.
3. BSI Management Systems will periodically assess the system and, if complied,
register your company or site to OHSAS 18001.

How does it work ?

The OHSAS 18001 Specification follows the Plan-Do-Check-Review cycle, with

an emphasis on continual improvement. Registration can be obtained.

For details see website : [Link]

1.18 Safety Steward System :

Safety Steward or Monitor system is an old concept of deputing one supervisor or

a senior man for overall safety supervision in a plant. The steward or monitor will take
rounds of the plant, premises, processes and persons assigned to him and will observe
them for their safe behaviour. He may correct the things on the spot if possible, or, may
direct the step necessary. He is solely supervising and monitoring for all safety works.
This system is useful in small factories but not convenient in big factories. There may be
one steward for one plant or different stewards for different departments in one plant.
The steward is reportable to his higher officer or to the Safety Department. This old
system of safety stewardship is rarely traccable now-a-days.

1.19 Circuit Approach to Safety :

This approach is based on a principle that all safety points should be checked in a
sequence (circuit) so that they can be remembered and attended easily. It touches the
points coming in line only. The circuit study can be said complete when all the circuits
are examined fully, otherwise, it is partial. Depending upon time, each circuit can be
checked one by one (the dangerous first) and necessary corrections are made. Thus by
this approach partial or full appraisal is possible.

Various industrial circuits are well known. Some circuits and their sequential
check-points are mentioned below:

Circuit Check-points
1. Electrical Circuit Main supply board, OCB / MOCB, transformers, lightening
arrester, earthings, cautionary notice, OCB / ACB, fuses,
MCC board, starters, relays, motor starter, capacitor,
single phase preventer, overload relay, cut-off switches
and flameproof fittings in hazardous areas.
2. Steam Circuit Boiler, Boiler Mountings such as pressure gauge , safety

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 31 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 valve, low water safety valve, coal feeder, damper, oil
burner, flow meter, recorder, etc. then on high pressure,
low pressure and distribution steam lines up to user points
– reducing valve, safety valve, non return valve, steam
traps, stop valve, strainer, steam flow indicator and
regulator etc. Then on steam using vessel and equipment
similar items.
3 Air Circuit Air filter, compressor, cooler, oil separator, stop valve, air
receiver, pressure gauge, safety valve, pressure cut-off
switch, air governor, unloader, stop valve, pressure
reducing valve, drain valve, by pass valve etc.
4 Water circuit Stop valve, by pass valve reducers, flanges, couplings,
gaskets, and cocks etc.
5 Process Circuit Depending upon nature of manufacturing process and its
flow sequence, various points should be identified listed
and approached in sequence. P & I diagram should be
used. Chemical process and Gas circuits need more
attention.
6 Safe Disposal Circuit The residues, solid, liquid or gaseous wastes, and
constant or accidental emissions of dust, gas, fume,
vapour, smoke etc. should be properly scrubbed,
neutralized, inactivated and treated in treatment plants to
render safe disposal their all control points should be
checked in sequence. Actually the process should be
designed wasteless by using recycling system.

Only some highlights are given above. More such circuits and more points in each
circuit: must be located, inspected and kept safe.

2 PLANT SAFETY INSPECTION

Plant safety inspection is an old and effective method of appraising plant safety.
Its techniques are explained below :

2.1 Definitions and Objectives :

As defined by BS 3811-1964 inspection is the process of ensuring by assessment

that a facility reaches the necessary standard of quality or performance and that the level
is maintained.

As defined by the same standard, maintenance is work undertaken in order to

keep or restore every facility i.e. every part of a site, building and contents to an
acceptable standard.

Thus maintenance implies some measure of inspection as part of its function to

determine (1) what maintenance is needed and when, and (2) whether the results are
acceptable.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 32 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Safety inspection is defined as 'that monitoring function conducted in an
organisation to locate and report existing and potential hazards which have the capacity
to cause accidents in the workplace.

Safety and health inspection ensures that working conditions/environment and

actions (methods) conform to legal or safety requirement and combine efforts of
employers, employees, safety experts and inspectors to create a safe working
environment.

Objectives of Inspection are :

1. To find out hazards, accident causes (unsafe conditions and actions) losses and
appropriate remedial measures for their prevention and control.
2. To maintain safe work environment, operational profitability and control unsafe
actions of people. 3. To check statutory provisions of the Factories Act and similar
other safety statutes.
4. To check the effectiveness of the existing systems and to find improvement if
required for the purpose of Total Loss Control.
5. To check quality control, product safety. Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP),
wear and tear, corrosion, tests and also personnel selection.
6. To gain workers' confidence in organised human activity and factory life.

2.2 Types and Procedures :

Inspections can be classified in many ways as explained below:

1. Planned Inspection : These are of 4 types :

(i) Periodic Inspection : Plant, machinery, equipment, lifting machines,

pressure vessels, apparatus, procedures, methods and health of the
workers should be examined at regular pre-planned period. Statutory
forms, checklists, tables and period of inspections, if any, must be strictly
followed. Nonstatutory periodicity may be decided according to the need.
The whole area should be covered and plant people should be informed in
advance for necessary arrangement. It should be deliberate, thorough,
detailed and systematic. Safety committee, safety officer, competent
person, safety consultant, industrial hygienist, doctors and other safety and
health personnel should carry out such inspections.
(ii) Intermittent Inspection : It is carried out at irregular intervals to check
new equipment installations, procedures and workers; modifications,
accident analysis etc. Some partial inspections are also carried out at
uncertain intervals.
(iii) General Inspection : It is general or routine' inspection to check places
which are not covered by .other inspections. Isolated areas, parking
places, side - walks, fencing, light - illumination, reporting after long
shutdown etc. are checked by such general or overhead inspections.
(iv) Special Inspection : Safety or hazard analysis, accident investigation,
checking of dangerous operation or vessel, building safety, subjects of
complaint only, inspection during special campaigns and new installations,

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 33 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 and only for storages, processes, methods, hand-tools, scaffolds, guards,
facilities, protective equipment etc., fall within this category.

2. Continuous (ongoing) Inspection: Some personnel like safety officer,

maintenance men, electricians etc. spend their all time in observing certain
equipment, vessels, processes, operations, safety devices, personal protective
equipment etc., to maintain them in safe and efficient working condition. Thus
continuous watch and familiarity with employees, equipment, machines and
environment are maintained as part of informal and co-operative responsibility.

3. Statutory Inspection : This is carried out by Factory Inspectors and other

authorities under various safety statutes (See Chapters 27 & 28) to check the
implementation of statutory provisions. Strict and timely compliance is necessary.
Breach of law may attract prosecutions. For most of the factories where there is
no system of internal inspection, statutory (government) inspection is the only
effective inspection and therefore it should be carried out in detail and the
governments must employ sufficient staff to achieve better safety inspections.
Non-technical workload on Inspectors should be minimised. Inspectors' powers
and duties are statutorily prescribed.

Planning and Procedures:

The persons making inspections should be familiar with (1) the know-how and
sound knowledge of plant, relevant standards, codes, rules etc. (2) the systematic
inspection steps or checklists (3) the method of using data, evaluating and report writing.
They should behave like friends, philosophers & guides. They should explain what, why
and how. They should know the reasons of past accidents, working unsafely, the safe
alternative or remedial measures and they should convince the people for better practice.

Basic Steps of inspection are : (1) To contact the department head for his help
(2) To observe all conditions for compliance with established standards (checklists
preferable) (3) To observe all operations for unsafe acts or violations of safety rules and
(4) To prepare a systematic report with all hazards detected and corresponding remedial
measures. The report should include good suggestions of plant people and the
recommendations may be discussed with the persons concerned. The report should be
sent to the concerned people for compliance and follow-up actions should be continued
till full compliance is achieved and reported to the management.

2.3 Non Destructive Testing (NDT) :

See Part 15.5.2 of Chapter 18 for details.

2.4 Safety Checklists :

Process or system checklists are used to identify common hazards and ensure
compliance with standard procedures.

A checklist is a convenient means of communicating minimum acceptable

levels and hazard evaluation. It can be as detailed as necessary to satisfy the specific
situation.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 34 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Checklists should be regularly audited and updated. They provide results quickly.

Checklists are complementary to the inspection technique and makes the.

inspection more perfect, speedy and systematic. There are so many checklists designed
in various ways and differing from plant to plant and person to person based on their
knowledge and experience. Industry, plant, process, equipment, tools and machine wise
checklists and those for good housekeeping occupy volumes. Therefore some sample
points are given below and other checklists (for textile, chemical, housekeeping etc.) are
given in respective chapters.

A broad checklist for plant inspection :

1. Environmental Factors : Parts most likely to develop unsafe or unhealthy

condition because of stress, wear, impact, vibration, heat, corrosion, reaction,
misuse or neglect etc.

2. Machinery : Pinch points, catch points, shear points, squeeze points, run-in
points, operation points etc. Power transmission viz. shafts, belts, gears, pulleys,
electric power, unsafe starting or stopping mechanism and machine guarding.

3. Tools : Wrong tool for the job, tool in unsafe condition or placed in unsafe
position, hazardous or defective hand tools and machine tools.

4. Work Area : Flooring-uneven, obstructed, slippery, cramped quarters, exposure

to traffic, insecure. piles .or overhead material, poor illumination, glare,
temperature -too hot, too cold, exposure to gases, dusts, fumes, vapours etc.,
hazards from nearby operations; flying or falling objects, electrical, chemical,
radiation and trip-fall hazards, work space, aisle, platforms, stairs, railings,
spillage, exits, doors, roofs, roadways, yards etc.

5. Material Handling : Nature of material or objects heavy, unwieldy, rough, sharp,

hot, corrosive, explosive, toxic etc., unsafe handling of equipment-lifts, hoists,
chain pulley blocks, containers, conveyors, trucks, cranes, derricks, transport
vehicles, elevators, chains, cables, slings and handling methods.
6. Equipment : Pressure vessels, revolving and vibrating equipment, pumps and
motors, tanks, scrubbers, flares, effluent treatment plants, safety devices,
maintenance tools, personal protective equipment, fire fighting equipment,
production and related equipment, electrical equipment, power or energy
equipment, store equipment etc.

7. Unsafe Work Practices : Operating without authority, operation at unsafe speed,

guards removed or made ineffective, use of defective tools or using unsafely,
handling materials unsafely, standing or working under suspended load ,open
hatches, shafts or scaffolds, walking on rail road tracks, driving vehicles wrongly
etc., repairing or adjusting equipment in motion, under pressure, electrically
charged or containing dangerous substances, distraction of attention, failure to
use or using wrong personal protective and fire fighting equipment, poor
housekeeping and failure to remedy unsanitary or unhealthy conditions.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 35 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 8. Specific Points : Special check points depending upon specialty of the plant,
process, material etc. and points not classified elsewhere should be included
here. Special checklists for the points of plant layout, machine guarding,
housekeeping, lighting, ventilation, fire, material handling and various processes
viz. engineering, textile, chemical etc. are given in the relevant chapters.

See Part 15.3 of Chapter-18 for checklists of chemical factories.

2.5 Safety Survey:

A safety survey is a detailed examination of a narrower or specific major key area

identified by safety inspection or audit, individual plant, procedure or particular problem
common to a works as a whole. It is followed by a formal report, action plan and
subsequent monitoring. .It is a general inspection of the particular dangerous activities,
processes or area.

Its difference with safety audit is evident. Safety audit covers all parts of a plant
one by one, while safety survey picks up only one or two most hazardous or important
part of the plant and carries out its inspection in depth. It is carried out by an expert team.

2.6 Safety Study :

Here particular area is selected and it is critically studied in details, a report is

prepared and submitted to the authority. The study report is useful to all concern. A
safety study of one industrial estate examines all or sample factories in the estate for
requisite points (mostly in proformas) and gives actual picture of the state of affairs in
respect of safety. It spells out number of recommendations and remedial measures
based on the study. A report of Hazards in Chemical Factories at G. 1. D. C., Vapi (A
Study) by Shri C. G. Pandya and published by Gandhi Labour Institute, Ahmedabad in
October 1986 is an example of such safety study.

Similarly within a plant some particular sections, departments, processes or

accidents can be selected for safety study. It is desirable that such study should be
carried out by experts of that field, otherwise many defects may escape unnoticed.
HAZOP, HAZAN, Fault Tree and similar techniques may be utilised for safety study.

Advantages of such safety study are many. It reveals hazards and industrial
hygiene effects to be considered at the design stage as well as for operating plants. It
gives general picture of an industrial estate studied for safety purpose. It suggests real
remedial measures and precautions to avoid accidents. Study of accident analysis
suggests appropriate preventive measures.

2.7 Safety Tour :

It is an unscheduled examination of a work area carried out by works managers or

safety committee members to ensure that the standards of housekeeping are at an
acceptable level, hazards are removed and safety standards are observed. Its scope is
less than that of a safety inspection. It is general inspection of the workplace.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 36 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2.8 Safety Review :

Its purpose is to identify unsafe conditions or operating procedures that could lead
to an accident. It ensures that the plant and procedures (operating and maintenance)
match the design intent and standards. The procedure

- initiates application of new technology to existing hazards.

- Reviews operating procedures for necessary revisions.
- Reviews adequacy of maintenance of safety inspections.
- Keeps plant personnel alert to the process hazards.

2.9 Safety Sampling :

It is a systematic sampling of particular dangerous activities, processes or areas.

Its a method of measuring hazard or accident potential by random sampling and by
counting safety defects while touring specified location by a prescribed tour of @ 15
minutes at the weekly intervals. The quantum of defects noticed is used to portray trends
m safety situation. The point on a safety sampling sheet includes items such as nonuse
of personal protection, obstructed fire exits, environmental factors, lighting, ventilation,
temperature, faulty hand tools, guarding position etc. The results are collected by the
Safety Officer and presented in graph form to monitor the effectiveness of the safety
programme.

Formula N = 4 (1-P)
V2 (P)

gives number of observations N,

when percentage of unsafe operations P and Value of accuracy V (normal value =

10%) are known. For example, if during preliminary survey of 60 observations, 20 were
found unsafe, then

P = 20 = 0.33% and N = 4 (1-0.33) = 812.12

60 (0.10)2(0.33)

This means 812 sample observations would be required to ascertain various

unsafe practices with an accuracy of 10%. If 200 observations are possible in one tour,
four tours (three tours of 200 and last tour of 212 observations) will be required for
satisfactory results.

This technique was first employed by American chemical plants and then by ICC’s
Dyestuffs Division in UK. It is based on Heinrich's ratio 1:29:300 opportunities must be
observed before one lost time accident. It is based on samples and not on detailed
surveys.

It’s difference with safety tour is that the tour is an unscheduled examination of
work area by a team of safety personnel and may last for a longer period to assess
safety standards, while safety sampling is a short tour of @ 15 minutes, generally by one
observer for the purpose of random sampling of visible defects and to mark them on a
sampling checklist.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 37 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Steps of the technique are :

1. List safety defects and hazards applicable to the area.

2. Define routes-at least two per section or department-which the observer can
traverse within 15 minutes.
3. Train the observers for correct use of their respective routes and printed
checklists.
4. Tell the workers the purpose of safety sampling.
5. Observers must meet at a convenient place once a. week or fortnight. One
observer should cover one route alone and mark his sheet.
6. Defects found should be corrected by supervisor or Department Head.
7. Results of Sampling Check List are added to summary sheets and plotted on a
graph.
8. Comparing with the graphs of past period, deviation in the safety performance
is noted and safety measures are decided to improve the performance.

Advantages or Benefits of this technique are :

1. Management is provided with a week by week picture of accident potential.

2. Defects are cleared at least once a week. Many defects are cleared on the spot.
3. Supervisors' eyes are sharpened by practice and begin to be more vigilant.
4. Supervisors and Managers are put on the spot when they fail to take action after
the defects have been pointed out to them.

Subjects of Safety Sampling Checklist are:

1. Protective Equipment-Non use or misuse of guards, fire extinguisher, first aid

box, safety notice, machine under repair etc.
2. Protective Clothing - Non use, misuse or defects of goggles, mask, gloves,
helmets, safety boots etc.
3. Housekeeping-Blocked passage way, stairways, slippery patches, chemical
spillage, blocked drains, tripping hazards etc.
4. Tools-Wrong or defective tools, using or towing tools unsafely, power tools, plugs,
wiring etc.
5. Unsafe Conditions-Leaking joints, valves etc., fans not working, -poor supports,
unsafe scaffolding, erection, lifting machines, pressure vessels, dress, design
and construction, improper illumination, ventilation, material position etc.
6. Unsafe Actions - Adjusting, cleaning or oiling machinery in motion, operating at
unsafe speed, making safety device inoperative, distracting/ teasing, taking
unsafe position, wrong ladder position, unsafe method, carrying heavy load, hand
trucks unsafely loaded, persons riding on fork lift, trolleys, machine part etc.

2.10 Contact Scheme :

Here supervisors are directed to contact the workers under their control, to talk
with them at the work place regarding safety points viz. wearing eye protection,
providing guard, clearing work benches, tool condition etc. and to put a tick mark on the
Contact Scheme Card designed for this purpose. This method is useful for on the spot
correction and motivating people for safe attitudes.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 38 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2.11 Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP):

This concept was first developed by the Pharmaceutical Manufacturer

Association, USA in 1961 and first GMP regulations were issued by U. S. Food and Drug
Administration in 1963 and was subsequently adopted in 1969 by the World Health
Organisation (WHO). Thus this concept originated for quality control in pharmaceutical
industry is also useful for other industries, because, it helps in overall improvement in
manufacturing practices by four quality elements of men, machinery, materials and
methods. Points included in GMP are:

1. Hygiene.
2. Product security.
3. Importance of labelling.
4. Defined procedures, SOP, SOI, PO etc.
5. Cross contamination.
6. Housekeeping and
7. Safety.

GMP brings us nearer to the ultimate good products with built-in quality and
safety.

WHO requirements for GMP are personnel, premises, equipment, sanitation,

starting materials, manufacturing operations, labelling and packaging, quality control
system, self inspection, distribution records and complaints and reports of adverse
reactions.

All processes, procedures, records and systems are clearly defined, personnel
and operators are trained and records are well documented for quality and safety
assurance at every stage.

2.12 Recommendations & Follow Up Actions (Compliance) :

The inspection report should be clear and concise with enough explanation, to
make it understandable. Copies of the recommendations should be sent to the
concerned persons for implementation. Progress should be reported to the management
at regular intervals. Periodic checks should be made until they have been fully complied.
In case of government inspection, the compliance report should be sent to the authority
within the time limit.

Rule 19 of the MSIHC Rules, 1989 and Rule 68J(13) of the GFR speaks of
improvement Notice" that may be served by the authority for compliance of contravened
provisions or matters leading to that contravention. The occupier shall remedy that and
any other measures (directions) specified within 45 days or the period also be specified.

2.13 Responsibility for Inspections :

Safety inspection cannot be carried out effectively by any one agency or

individual. The responsibility should be shared by all concerned. All personnel at the

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 39 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 various levels should clearly understand their responsibilities and functions so that
management's objectives are implemented through their co-ordinated efforts.

Safety Officer, Safety Committee and Line Management comprising of senior

plant managers, first line supervisors, engineers and workers are all responsible for
effective inspections and their speedy compliance.

3 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION, ANALYSIS AND

REPORTING
3.1 Philosophy :

Philosophy of industrial accident investigation should be clear and well explained

to workers. It should not be oriented toward fault-finding and blaming any individual. It's
main objective is to find out the real cause (s) of the accident and then based on it, to
suggest appropriate remedial measures to prevent its recurrence.

For gross unsafe action, negligence, omission or personal fault, attention of the
person should be drawn explaining him the consequence and to improve himself not to
commit such act in future. He should be properly trained if necessary. See Part 3.5 for
accident analysis.

3.2 Purposes of Investigation and Report:

The main purposes arc :

1. To learn accident causes so that similar accidents can be prevented by

improvement of working conditions, actions and supervision. This helps in
designing accident prevention strategies.

2. To make the hazard known to the management, workers and supervisors to

direct their attention to accident prevention.

3. To find facts to determine legal liability and information for preventive purposes. If
the purpose is 'to fix blame or responsibility', vital information will often be withheld
or distorted. Therefore an investigation should be for the preventive purposes to
disclose facts and not faults.

4. To establish procedure to combat damage claims under compensation laws.

5. To determine the 'change' or deviation that produced an 'error' that in turn

resulted in an accident (systems safety analysis).

6. In case of accident affecting the society as a whole the Government may

intervene for the purpose of banning of the hazardous material or process.

7. To find out injury rates to compare safety performance.

8. To use the record for the purpose of job safety analysis.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 40 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 9. To develop safety rules, procedures, bulletins, posters and material for safety
meetings and motivation and

10. To amend die safety law if it is thought necessary by the Government.

3.3 Process and Types of Investigation:

Process of investigation includes observation at site, interrogation with workers,

fact findings, judgement and recommendations.

Some objective questions to be considered and answered by the investigator are :

Who was injured, what was he doing at that time, where was he, who was with him, what
he has to say about happening, what part of the injured is involved, how was he injured,
what was unsafe-the condition, the method or the action of the injured? what does the
medical report suggest, what safeguards should be used, what safeguards are provided
to prevent recurrence and what are yet to be provided. Such and similar other questions
and their answers constitute a Supervisor's Accident Report.

The first requirement for the injured person is to provide him medical treatment. It
is a mistake to make him upset by questions. It is advisable to wait till he recollects his
thoughts and gets his nerves under control. Initial story should be collected from spot
checking and interrogation with co-workers and eye-witnesses. There should not be
delay in initial inquiry. The conditions should be kept unaltered pending the investigation.
Photographs, sketches, notes, computer and DCS records etc. will help much.
Chronological questions should be asked and the concerned facts should be collected
viz. testing reports, registers, documents, instructions, defective or damaged parts etc.
The fact findings should aim to determine exact causes of the accident. All causes
should be considered and classified according to severity and responsibility for
preventive purpose. As the last step, suggestions and recommendations for the
prevention should be submitted in writing. An emphasis should be put to suggest
engineering controls than to suggest human responsibilities. If it needs, training
methods should be suggested. Effectiveness and practicability of the
recommendations should not be forgotten. Implementing difficulties should be
considered and replied. Then the report is sent to the management for implementation.

All fatal and serious accidents and dangerous occurrences must be investigated
thoroughly and all reportable, non-fatal and repetitive accidents should also be inquired.
If time permits non-reportable and near-miss accidents should also be investigated.

Types of Accidents are mentioned in Part 8.1 of Chapter-4. Accident statistical

forms are given in Part 9 and 12 of Chapter-5. Accident classification (analysis) is
explained in Part 3.5 following. Types of investigations depend on the circumstances and
objective of each case. Some types are failure mode and effect analysis, HAZOP, fault
tree, event tree, cost effectiveness, statistical method, critical incident method, system
safety etc. as described in foregoing two parts of this Chapter.

3.4 Agencies investing accidents :

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 41 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 In case of statutory reportable accidents, generally factory inspectors (Govt.
Labour Dept.) investigate, but, because of -a $mall number of staff and big number of
accidents in hundreds of factories in their charge, obviously, they cannot investigate all
small accidents reported to them. They investigate serious and fatal accidents and give
detailed report showing the facts, breach of law if any, and remedial measures. They
may order to prohibit the use of some plant, equipment, process or premises if it is
found of imminent danger to them. Investigation of Bhopal accident resulted into an
order of permanent closer of the factory. A committee may be constituted by the Govt. to
inquire into serious accidents. The finding may be used to amend the safety law if
required.

Major, permanent and immediate responsibility of accident investigation lies upon

the factory management and it is in their interest also. Even then it is noticed that
majority of the small factories have not yet thought to self-inspect or investigate their own
accidents. They simply report and rest upon the insurance. This is not good. Each factory
should have its own system or arrangement to investigate accidents, hazards and to
suggest and implement the remedial measures. This is most advisable and useful for the
purpose of safety. They may utilise safety consultancy services of safety specialists.

Depending upon the gravity and nature of the accident, it may be investigated by
foreman or supervisor, safety officer or engineer, safety committee or an expert group
including consultants. The supervisor should report and investigate each accident, as he
is the nearest man having more knowledge of the accident facts and remedial measures.
The safety officer should investigate each important accident for his own information and
report to the top management for necessary steps. His specialised knowledge, training,
experience and ability make his report more valuable and useful in preventing
recurrence. The safety committee's report is sometimes more effective as it carries
workers' voice as representatives in the committee and rich knowledge of the
Department Head.

The information gained from accident investigations should be used throughout

the establishment where it is applicable. All similar or identical possibilities should be
judged to prevent similar accidents.

3.5 Accident Analysis (Classification)

Investigation and analysis go together. The facts found form the investigation are
first analysed. The analysis should reveal one hypothesis to explain all the facts
adequately. Result oriented Objective Analysis procedure should include the following :

1. Identify and locate the main source of accidents from actual experience, materials,
machines, tools, jobs, men and methods most likely to produce injuries.

2. Disclose the nature and size of the accident problem in departments and
among occupations.

3. Indicate the need for engineering revision by identifying the unsafe conditions,
materials, equipment and environment.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 42 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 4. Disclose inefficient operating procedures, processes, poor layout and outdated
methods to reduce accidents.

5. Disclose the unsafe practices for training of employees.

6. Disclose improper placement of personnel in instances of handicaps

contributing to accidents.

7. Guide supervisors to use their maximum time for safety work by providing them
information about the hazards in their departments.

8. Evaluate the success of a safety programme by continuing analysis of the effects

of different safety measures, educational techniques and other methods to
prevent injuries.

3.5.1 As per IS : 3786

The principal factors related to causation of accidents are : (a) agency (b) unsafe
mechanical or physical condition (c) unsafe act (d) unsafe personal factor (e) type of
accident (f) nature of injury and (g) location of injury.

A standard classification as given in Appendix B of IS:3786 could serve as a guide

for detailed analysis of accidents for the study of various causative factors and their
relationships.

The major divisions are given below. For details the Appendix -B should be
referred.

B-l Classification According to Agency.

B-2 Classification According to Unsafe Material or Physical Conditions.
B-3 Classification According to the Unsafe Act.
B-4 Classification According to Unsafe Personal Factor.
B-5 Classification According to Type of Accident.
B-6 Classification According to Nature of the injury.
B-7 Classification According to the location of the injury.

Example 1 :

A lathe operator lost his two fingers of left hand when it was trapped in the nip of
unguarded speed changing pulley belts when the start switch lever was accidentally
turned to 'on position' by striking his body to the lever. Analyse this accident by
identifying the key facts (factors) and causes of this accident.
S. Analysis Key Factors (Causes) Part of
No. IS : 3786
1 Agency -- Speed changing pulley belt 2023
of the lathe
2 Unsafe (1) Unguarded pulley-belt 10
condition -- (2) Start switch of the wrong
type
3 Unsafe Act Taking unsafe position of 60

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 43 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 posture
4 Unsafe Nil
personal factor
5 Type of Caught between moving 133
accident objects
6 Nature of Amputation of two fingers 340
Inquiry
7 Location of Fingers 447
injury

Example 2:

A helper in a chemical plant while transferring 2-4 dichlorophenol in a carboy

through pumping and with tight fitting rubber hose-pipe inserted in the carboy without
venting was splashed by the chemical came out due to rupture of the pipe, died within 15
minutes. He has not worn the PVC overall and hand gloves. Analyse this accident as per
IS Classification.

S. Analysis Key Factors (Causes) Part of

No. IS : 3786
1 Agency -- Toxic Chemical 2324
2 Unsafe 1. Rubber hose - pipe 30
condition -- 2. No venting while filling i.e.
hazardous arrangement.
3 Unsafe Act 1. Not wearing protective 50
equipment and Not allowing
air vent in the carboy i.e.
unsafe placing.
4 Unsafe Nil
personal factor
5 Type of Contact by absorption of 171
accident harmful substance.
6 Nature of Death by acute poisoning 370
Inquiry
7 Location of Upper limb, multiple 448
injury locations

Thus seven key factors (facts with causes) are explained above by two examples.
These factors are defined and classified in Appendix B of IS:3786. Also refer Chapter-30
for case studies of number of such accident cases and try to classify them accordingly.

Relative importance of proximate cause and accident (key) factors in any accident
investigation is evident from above examples and case studies. The proximate cause
(unsafe condition/action) explains the phenomena of accident and suggests the
appropriate remedy to prevents recurrence. If the cause is not known, selection of
remedy and its application are not possible. Other accident factors viz. agency, type,
nature and location of injury explain the classified effects of an accident which are useful
in determining type of guard or guard position, safety device, protection from dangerous
contact and type of personal protective equipment necessary.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 44 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 3.5.2 As per the Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health and Labour Bureau

Statutory accident reports received by all Factory Inspectorates are classified as

below. Labour Bureau, Shimla also publishes the accident statistics in the same
classification. Only the major heads are given and for further details the full classification
list should be referred.

Personal Faults

Material and Mechanical Faults

(i) Lack of training (i) Physical hazards

(ii) Chemical hazards (ii) Chemical hazards
(iii) Poor discipline (iii) Poor housekeeping
(v) Others (iv) Improper clothing
(v) Others

Textile Machinery:

1. Opening & Blow room m/c.

2. Cardroom m/c.
3. Drawing Frames
4. Speed, Stubbing, Inter and Roving Frames.
5. Spinning m/c.
6. Weaving m/c.
7. Finishing ni/c.
8. Flying shuttles. 8A Nip Accidents.
9. Other Miscellaneous textile m/cs.

Non-Textile Machinery and others:

101 Prime Movers

102 Shafting
103 Transmission m/c.
104 Lifting m/c.
105 Power Presses
106 Others
107 Circular Saws
108 Planning m/c.
109 Vertical Spindle moulding m/c.
110 Others
111 Rollers for calendar mixers etc.
112 Others
113 Power shunted Railways
114 Manually shunted Railways
115 Power driven vehicles
116 Manually handled vehicles
117 Electricity
118 Explosions

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 45 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 119 Fires
120 Gassing
121 Molten metal & Hot substances
122 M/c not moved by mechanical power
123 Others
124 Handtools
125 Struck by falling body
126 Falling from heights
127 Falling on the flats
128 Falling into pits etc.
129 Stepping on or striking against objects
130 Handling goods or articles
131 Others

Accident classification is required industry class wise. Therefore Industrial

Classification should be seen together.

3.6 Industrial Classification. (NIC-1987):

Accident causation classification and classification should be studied together for

data of industry wise and causation wise See Table 5.22 of Chapter-5.

National Industrial Classification (NIC) India, 1987 is a four digits classification

of all industries in India and is extensively used to classify factories according to their
manufacturing process or activity and to arrange them for national labour statistics.

3.7 Accident Investigation Report and its Content:

3.7.1 Types of Reports :

After analysis the next step required is to write a clear and purposeful report in
the report form. Statutory forms viz. Form No. 21, 22 and 29 under the Gujarat Factories
Rules should be filled in first and sent to the authorities within stipulated time. As these
forms do not provide sufficient information for the purpose of accident causation,
analysis, costing and preventive measures, new forms should be designed and utilised
for internal use. Part 9 of Chapter-5 provides such detailed Accident Statistics Form and
Accident Cost Form for above purposes. Part 12 of the same Chapter provides useful
tables for keeping a purposeful record of safety statistics. Such report forms and records
must be written clearly emphasising the detailed causation and consequences of
accidents and their usefulness in searching remedial measures.

Some Accident Report and Analysis formats for internal use are given below.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 46 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Format 1: Incident / Accident Investigation Report

(To be submitted immediately after the incident)

Name & Address of the Factory: Sr. No.

____________
Date
______________

1. Contractor ________________________________________ Project :

______________________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
2. Date of Incident ____________________________________ Time _________
Location _______
3. Event (a) Personal Accident _____________  (d) Pollution
Contamination 
(b) Fire or explosion ______________  (e) Spillage / Gas Release


Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 47 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 (c) Mechanical Failure _____________  (f) Others

4. Result (a) Injury _____________  (d) More loss of Mandays

(b) Material Loss ______________  (e) Property Damage 
(c) Near-miss incident _____________  (f) Environmental Pollution

/ Others

5. Name of the Injured :

_____________________________________________________________
Age ___________ Sex ________ I.D No. _____________________ Trade
__________________
6. Hours at which he started work on the day of injury
_____________________________________
7. Description of Incident (Describe what the involved person was doing, Mention the
exact location / area of incident and equipment )
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
8 Specify the injury (i.e. state the extent of wound/ fractures etc.)/ damage (Approx.
Loss)
_________________________________________________________________
_____________
9 (1) If caused by Equipment / Machine give name
______________________________________ (2) State whether it was moved by
mechanical power at that time ______________ Yes / No.
10. Where there any unsafe conditions ?
______________________________________________
11. Whether any unsafe act was done by him ?
_____________________________________
12. Protective clothing / equipment used ? What ?
_________________________________________
13. Was he under influence of Liquor / Narcotics ?
Yes/No.
14. (1) Whether job safety analysis was explained to him ?
________________________________
(2) Who explained it
____________________________________________________________
15. How long will he remain away from work :
__________________________________________
16. State whether the medical aid given to him ?
_________________________________________
17. Probable causes of Incident ?
_____________________________________________________

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 48 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 _________________________________________________________________
____________
18. Describe what steps should be taken to prevent such recurrence in future
___________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________
19. Name of Witness : (1) Name ___________________________ Dept.
_____________________
(2) Name ___________________________ Dept.
_____________________
20. Name of Resident Engineer / Engineer-in-charge
______________________________________
Date ________________________ Signature
_________________________________________

Format 2: Incident / Accident Investigation Report

(To be submitted immediately after the incident)

Name & Address of the Factory: Sr. No.

____________
Date
______________

Recordable Non Lost

First Aid Lost Time reportable
Time

Fire Spill & Leak Near Miss

Property
Damage

1. Name of the injured person :

2. Contractor :
3. Plant/Section :
4. Employee Code No./Designation :
5. Age/Sex :
6. Date & Time of Incident :
7. Normal Working Hours :
8. Location of Indicent :

Area Equipment No. Name of Equipment

9. Type of Incident :
10. Nature of Incident :
11. Body part injured :
12. Extent of Material LOSS/Property Damage :

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 49 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 13. Details of Incident
a. Sequential Occurrence Description :
b. Activity of the injured at the time of Incident :
c. Observations & Inference :
14. Conclusion:
Probable Causes:
a. Immediate causes:
b. Basic/Root causes:
15. Preventive Measures :
Sr. Recommendations Action Date Status
No. By
1.
2.

16. Evaluation :

Severity Potential Probability Potential

Major Serious Minor Frequent Occasional Rare

17. Investigated By :
Fire & Safety Dept :
Plant concerned :

18. Discussed & Reviewed OR to be discussed & reviewed at

19. Copies for Action to :

Signature

Name &
Designation
Format 3: Work Injury Investigation Report
(To be submitted immediately after the incident)

Name & Address of the Factory: Sr. No.

____________
Date
______________

If not employed by Company, Contractor's Name & Address

___________________________________
Nature of Injury Parts of Body Affected Struck
agains
Chemical Exposure

Arms & Fore Arms

Any other (Specify)

Hands & Fingers

t
Burns (chem..)

REsp. system
Head & scalp
Foreign Body

Face & Neck

Laceration
Contusion

Thigh/Leg

Struck
Abdomen
Puncture
Abrasion

Fracture
Sprain

Chest

Knee
Back

by
Foot
Eye
Cut

Caugh
t in
Fall
from
height
Slippe

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 50 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Minor Name : __________ E.C. No. ____________ Age : d on
groun
_______ Sex :___
d
Category Designation : ___________ Dept/Plant: _________
Conta
Recorda Section: __________ ct with
ble Non
Chem.
lost time Date of Accident : __________ Time : _________ Place :
Recorabl ____________
e Lost Conta
Time Injured came on duty : Date : ______________ Time : ct with
Temp.
______________
Description of Accident : Arrived at Medical Centre at : Inhalat
__________ Hrs. ion
Departure From Medical Centre at : Ingesti
_______ Hrs. on
Treatment Given : Machi
Exactly what the injured was ne
doing : Treatment at Medical
Centre ( ) Yes ( ) No
Vehicl
Referred to Hospital ( ) Yes ( ) No
es
Fit for Duty ( ) Yes ( ) No
If exposed to Chem.:____()
Sligth ()Severe If unfit, __________ Days w.e.f Tools
Name of the chemicals: _____________
_______________ Conve
( ) Gas ( ) Liquid ( ) Likely Loss Time ______________ yors
Solid Days/Hours
State of Remarks (if any) :
Chemicals : Stairs/
Ladde
( ) Hold ( ) Cold ( )
r
Room Temp
Whether Safety Equipment was
being used Electri
Signature of the c App.
Yes Medical Officer / Shift
No Chemi
Safety Glasses ____ cal

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 51 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 ____
____
____ Nurse ________________________
Safety Shoes ____
____ Name :
____ ________________________________
____
Helmet ____
____
____
____
Hand Gloves ____
____
Others
____
(Speci
____
fy)
Face Shield ____
____

Gas Mask

PVC Clothing

SBA

Safety belt

________

Format 4 : Statutory Accident Forms:

(1) Under Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 - Form No.

21, 21-A, 22 and Sch. 6 u/r 68-J.
(2) Under MSIHC Rules 1989 - Sch. 6.

These statutory accident forms should be referred from the law books and should
be sent within prescribed time limit.

Statutory Report:

A good management should keep a system of investigating and recording all

injury cases-major, minor and all first aid treated cases-as well as cases of damage to
property or environment. Accident Register (Form no. 29 GFR) and Health Register
(Form No. 20 GFR) must be kept up-to-date. Accident Reports (Form No. 21 GFR) must
be filled in details, attached with the detailed investigation reports, properly classified and
filed.

Annual reports should also be prepared to compare the year to year

performance. The reports should be reduced to simple charts, graphs or computer data.
Safety bulletin may be prepared and circulated to read such data. Publication of typical
accidents, their causes & remedial measures etc., accident rates, safely award winners
etc. will promote safely and motivate people. Safety reports circulated among industries
make them alert. Reports sent to the Government are useful to many industries, as the
Government feeds such information to planners to help them to decide upon the course
of action. It may be of State or National interest to discuss safety reports (from the Chief
Inspector of Factories and others) in the Legislative Assemblies or the Parliament.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 52 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Publicity of the abstract of safety reports through TV, radio, books and newspapers are
also desirable.

3.7.2 Content of Accident Investigation Report:

An Accident Investigation Report (Remarks) should contain

1. Name and address of the factory.

2. Name and address of the investigator (inspector) and with whom.
3. Facts finding-including date, time, place and manner of the accident, persons
involved, result, facts seen or known by the investigator, facts stated by the
workers injured and the co-workers who saw the accident, facts stated by other
persons and facts of judicial notice.
4. Drawings, photographs, sketches, records, registers, documents and computer
printouts pertaining to the accident.
5. The process at the time of the accident.
6. The causes of the accident in details and with break-up.
7. The remedial measures.
8. The breach of law if any.
9. Compensation to be paid and information for insurance purpose.
10. The delivery of the report to whom and how.

The statements recorded should be enclosed. Such reports should be preserved

till the legal cases are over and to use them for preventive purpose.

Primary responsibility to report accident lies upon the supervisor. First he will
report to the management. The routine of reporting may vary according to the size and
set-up of the plant and its organisation. The safety officer/engineer should go through the
supervisor's report and should put his comment or notes. He may further inquire for his
satisfaction or more details. The top management will report to the Government and
should take keen interest in going through the report and to implement it. The safety
officer's report should include trend of injury rates, total time lost, cost of the accident and
his suggestion to improve safety and to save unwanted cost.

3.8 Methods of Collating and Tabulating Data :

For analysing a small number of reports the tabulation by hand sorting and tallying
is efficient. Its advantage is that the original records are being used and all the
information is available for reference.

For analysing and filing a large number of reports, keysort cards may be used.
This card contains the information of the original report. The code numbers assigned to
the various factors may be punched in the cards so that they can be sorted by a special
needle. Sorting is a hand operation.

A third method of tabulation uses card tabulating machine. Here the code
numbers only are punched into the cards which can be quickly and accurately arranged
into various groups. This methods is very useful when the number of reports is very
large, when many classification and cross or sub classifications are required or when
tabulation of numerical data such as days lost etc. are necessary.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 53 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Modern method of computer processing can also be utilised for such tabulation.
See part 13 of Chapter5 for management information system (MIS).

3.9 Follow-up for Corrective Action :

Merely obtaining, recording and tabulating of safety data is of no use. It must be

followed by necessary corrective action to provide safe working condition, to teach safe
working actions, to improve existing training system,, to make new safety rules
necessary to improve inspection techniques and analysis to design -posters, safety
manual and positive actions to minimise accidents.

Follow up action must be and should consider every compliance. Reasons of

prompt and immediate recommendation for not following the recommendation or delays
necessary to make changes should be explained. The accident causation should be
applied to all identical cases in other departments also to prevent similar recurrences.

3.10 Record Keeping :

Record of accidents reported to the plant management and to the Government

authorities, facts collected as a result of investigation, analysis of the facts, conclusion
about remedial measures necessary and status of implementation of those measures
must be kept in a well documented form. Computer is more useful in this regard. In DCS
system, printouts of accident situations at the time of accident should be kept out and
preserved.

Safety department should design formats of safety records applicable to the

factory, train personnel to fill such records and maintain them.

Records keeping may be ordinary or computerised and in much details. Good

record is always useful for

1. Studying past accident causes and remedial measures concluded.

2. Monitoring status of implementation of safety measures.
3. Taking decisions regarding future action in the matters of safety.

Period of maintaining record should be decided depending on the utility of the

subject matter.

4. HAZARD AND RISK ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES:

This subject requires clear understanding of definitions and difference between
hazard and risk, analysis and assessment etc.

4.1 Hazard, Risk & Detection Techniques:

For definitions of hazards and risks see parts 3.34 and 3.75 of Chapter 2.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 54 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Risk results from hazard i.e. an unsafe condition, action or .situation. Risk is the
probability of frequency of hazards during a certain period (e.g. 2 explosions per year, 20
fires per year, 5 accidents per month, 200 fatalities per year, I disaster per 10 years etc.).
Therefore if hazard is identified and 'removed first, risk is automatically reduced.
Some definitions are as under:

Hazard is the inherent property of a substance or unsafe condition, unsafe action

or situation to cause harm which may cause human injury, damage to property or the
environment or some combination of these criteria.

Chemical Hazard is a hazard due to chemical (including its storage, process,

handling etc.) and it is realised by fire, explosion, toxicity, radiation etc.

Risk is the likelihood, chance, frequency or probability of an undesired event (i.e.

accident, injury or death) occurring within a specified period or under specified
circumstances and its severity, effect or consequences.

As per example risk of death for a man aged 30 is 1x10-3 per annum and that for a
man aged 60 is 1 x 10-2 per annum.

This means death possibility of a man aged 30 is I out of 1000 per year, while that
of a m<in aged 60 is I out of 100 per year. Risk unit '1 x 10-n means 1/10" i.e. one time
event out of- 10n such occurrences during a period (e.g. I year).

Individual Risk is the frequency at which an individual may be expected to sustain

a given level of harm from the realisation of specific hazards.

Societal Risk is a measure of the chances of a number of people being affected

by a single event or set of events and is often presented as f/n curves, (i.e. frequency v/s
number of people affected).

Almost all human activities involve some risk and zero risk is not possible.
Therefore the concept of Acceptable risk is developed and Fischoff defines it as 'the level
which is good enough where the advantages of increased safety are not worth the extra
costs of reducing risk'. Thus it indicates the balancing condition of accident costs v/s
preventive costs. Hazard and Risk distinguished:

For example, banana skin lying on the road is a hazard but 2 persons falling per
hour due to that, is a risk. Non-provision of safe overflow pipe is a hazard but weekly
overflowing of the tank due to that, is a risk. Process of sand blasting is a hazard but
contracting of silicosis by a worker at any point of time, is a risk. Storage of toxic gas is a
hazard but due to its escape and effects, probability of deaths of 100 persons per 10
years, is a risk. Not providing a 'safety valve is a hazard but bursting of vessel once In 5
years, is a risk. Bad housekeeping is hazard but 2 accidents per month or 20 workers
leaving the job every year due to it, is a risk.

Thus identification, analysis and assessment of hazards are different than the
identification, analysis and assessment of risks, though both are interrelated. Factors of
tune, frequency or ill effects (consequence) are added in 'risk' distinguishing it from
'hazard'.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 55 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Some definitions relevant to risks are as under :

1. Exposure to Risk : A situation created whenever an act or omission gives rise to

possible gain or loss that cannot be predicted.
2. Cost of Risk : The cost imposed upon organisation because of the presence
of risk. Its component parts are (1) the cost of losses that do occur and (2) the
cost of uncertainty itself.
3. Risk Management : A general management function that seeks to identify,
assess, address, control and review the causes and effects of uncertainty and risk
on an organisation. It includes assessment, control, financing and administration
of risk as defined herein below.
4. Risk Analysis : Technical process of identifying, understanding and evaluating
risk (analysing cause and effect wise).
5. Risk Assessment : It is a judgement of significance or activities that enable the
risk manager to identify, evaluate and measure risk and uncertainty and their
potential impact on the organisation.
This judgement can be taken when the measured value of hazard or risk is
compared with the value or standard legally or otherwise prescribed. This calls for
an expertise of an industrial hygienist.
6. Risk and Uncertainty Assessment : All activities associated with identifying,
analysing, measuring, comparing and concluding risk and uncertainty.
7. Risk Control : All activities associated with avoiding, preventing, reducing or
otherwise controlling risks and uncertainties.
8. Risk Financing : Activities providing means of reimbursing losses (i.e. finance for
the cost of risks and losses) that occur and that fund other programmes to reduce
risks and uncertainties.
9. Risk Administration : Activities and strategies associated with the long-term and
day-to-day operation of the risk management function.
10. Risk Selection : The control technique best described as the conscious
acceptance of risk in accordance with an organisation's overall goals, objectives
and risk taking philosophy.
11. Risk Avoidance : A risk control technique whereby a risk is proactively
avoided or abandoned after rational consideration.
12. Loss Prevention : Those strategies and activities intended to reduce or
eliminate the chance of loss.
13. Loss Reduction : Activities minimising the impact of losses that do occur.
14. The Risk Chain : Five elements or links connected with accident i.e. hazard,
environment, interaction, outcome and consequence.
15. Subrogation : Risk transfer by legal document as a loss reduction tool.
16. Risk Transfer : If risks cannot be controlled, the last resort is to transfer the risk
by contract of job, or property or insurance to pay for losses.
17. Risk Retention : A risk financing method in which the organisation experiencing
a loss retains the risk by self financing or borrowed funds, or by a group to which

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 56 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 the organisation belongs. Retention may be passive or active, unconscious or
conscious, unplanned or planned.
18. Information Management (as a risk reduction tool) : The use of information for
the express purpose of reducing uncertainty or for enhancing stakeholder
awareness or knowledge of organisational risks.

Hazard detection techniques :

Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions must be observed to find out hazards.
Statutory accidents reports (e.g. Form 21 & 29 GFR) should be seen to detect past
accident causes. Unsafe acts due to psychological and physiological personal factors
should be detected as explained in Chapters 3 and 4. Hazards of unsafe conditions are
mechanical, electrical, chemical (including radiation) and environmental. Some hazards
are visible and some invisible.

Visible hazards can be detected by various techniques such as (1) Plant

inspection based on statutory requirement, checklist, safety survey, safety audit and
safety sampling (2) Detection and monitoring systems (3) Functional test of machinery
and equipment (4) Accident investigation (5) Repair shop (6) Store consumption and (7)
Shop feed back etc.

Examples of visible hazards are unguarded machinery, bad housekeeping, wrong

practices etc. To discover such hazards careful planning and inspecting system is
necessary. Some steps are : (1) Make a list of all statutory applicable provisions of the
Factories Act and other Acts, make a survey of the plant to compare the existing
provisions and find out the missing provisions (hazards) for implementation (2) Make a
list of materials, processes, operations, vessels, equipment, machinery and classify them
as hazardous and non-hazardous. Chemicals should be classified according to their
hazardous properties. (3) Prepare layout of plant, machinery, equipment, premises and
utility services like power, water, air, gas and heating / cooling media. From these
prepare a list of possible hazards. (4) By means different techniques mentioned in Part I
and 2. Further details of the hazards should be detected and (5) By means of a detailed
inspection report preventive measures should be suggested.

Invisible hazards like gas leaks, concentration of toxic and hazardous vapour,
malfunction or failure of machinery, equipment, pressure plants and miscellaneous
environmental factors may cause sudden accident and heavy damage. They must be
detected and controlled by built in self corrective systems. The devices used are
detectors, recorders, alarms, trips, probes, sensors, limit switches, meters, analysers,
electronic or auto controls, scrubbers, incinerators etc.

In modern machines various automatic movements take place near and around
point of operation. Feeding devices, clamping action and work head movements should
be interlocked with each other. Each position of these elements must be sensed and
linked with command controls. Any malfunction of moving elements is indicated on
audio-visual panel and the machine stops.

Repair shop data reveals clues to unsafe conditions like poor design, defective
material, poor construction, wear and tear etc. Repetitive repairs indicate major hazards.
Similarly store consumption data also indicates some defects. There should be a regular

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 57 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 feedback of information from repair shop, stores, operators and foremen to monitor
hazards and to take corrective actions.

Heating equipment should have temperature controllers and additional

thermostats for better protection and to give audio-visual signals and to cut off power
supply or heat source. In furnaces using flammable fuel in scaled chamber, the
components are charged through hydraulically operated carriages and such carriages,
fuel flow and flame curtain are sensed by various gadgets like photo-sells, probes, limit
switches etc. Failures are sensed and indicated o panel. Suitable corrective actions are
automatically taken viz. purging nitrogen etc. Toxic exposures are neutralised by
scrubbers. Flammable exposures are controlled by flameproof fittings, flare and vents.
Effluents are treated in 'treatment plants to nullify their harmful effects.

4.2 Hazard and Risk Progression Chart:

Process of Risk Management in six stages is explained below in a progression

chart

Hazard and Risk Study Progression Chart

Stages Hazard Haz Risk Risk Risk
of identific ard anal assess manage
hazard ation anal ysis ment ment
and risk ysis
studies
1.
Identifica Qualitative
tion of (i.e. HAZOP)
source
of
hazards
and their
causes. Qualitative
(i.e. HAZOP)
2.
Analysis
of
mechani Qualitative
sm of
hazard
occurren Usually
ce. Qualitative
3.
Analysis Mixture of
of Qualitative
terminal And
consequ Quantitative
ences of
hazards.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 58 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 4.
Probabili
ty or
frequenc
y of a
hazard
occurrin
g and
thence
an
estimatio
n of risk.
5.
Judgem
ent of
acceptab
ility of
risk
against
social,
political
or local
criteria.
6.
Making
decision
and
establish
ing
ownershi
p of
action
and
monitori
ng to
contain
within
limits of
criteria.

1. Hazard Identification (Identify sources and causes of hazards).

2. Hazard Analysis (Analyse how hazards will occur and affect).
3. Risk Analysis (Estimate risk i.e. hazard occurring per unit time).
4. Risk Assessment (Compare the risk with acceptable criteria - legal, social or
political - and decide whether the risk is lesser or higher than that criteria), and
5. Risk Management (Form organisation to carry out above exercises and to
monitor, control, review and keep the risks within permissible limits).

A stage of 'Hazard 'Assessment' is also possible after hazard analysis. When

hazard is compared with its standard prescribed e.g. noise level, light, air flow or

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 59 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 chemical exposure (TLV, STEL, LD/LC etc.) is compared with their statutory values or
Indian Standards and inference is drawn about their difference (measured value-
prescribed value), it is called hazard assessment.

4.3 Risk Analysis, Assessment and Management:

Procedure of Risk Management is Stated below which includes Risk Analysis and
Assessment.

(A) Five Steps as per HSE (U.K.) guidelines (Qualitative):

1. Look for the hazards.
2. Decide who might be harmed and how.
3. Evaluate the risk and decide whether the existing precautions are adequate or
whether more should be done.
4. Record your findings.
5. Review your assessment and revise it if necessary.

These steps suggest simple method of Risk Assessment for any hazardous
activity.

It is qualitative only. No factor is quantified. Effect of control measures is taken

into account.

(B) Five steps as per Defined Risk Assessment Methodology (Qualitative and
Quantitative):
1. Identification of sources of hazards and their causes. It is qualitative, e.g. HAZOP.
This step is known as "Hazard Identification"
2. Analysis of
(i) Mechanism of hazard occurrence and
(ii) Terminal consequences of hazards.
This is quantitative e.g. HAZAN. Consequence analysis quantifies
concentration, deaths, injuries and damage, (e.g. damage distance and effect).
This step is known as "Hazard Analysis".
3. Probability, frequency or likelihood of hazard occurring and thence an estimation
of risk.
This is also quantitative as it depends on failure rates, number of chances
or cycles and reliability engineering.
This step is known as "Risk Analysis".
4. Judgment of acceptability of risk against legal, social or political criteria.

Here measured value of hazard or calculated risk is compared with permissible

safe limit (e.g. Sell. 2, Factories Act, GPCB norms etc.) and then inference is drawn
whether hazard or risk is higher or lower than the permissible safe limit or standard.

Therefore, this is usually quantitative.

This step is known as "Risk Assessment".

5. Decision making and taking control measures to prevent, reduce or transfer the
risks, by short and long term planning.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 60 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 This is a mixture of qualitative and quantitative criteria.

This step is known as "Risk Management".

Risk or Safety Manager should assist the top management in this regard.

(C) Types or Methods of Risk Assessment:

1. Simple or Qualitative Risk Analysis:

It is an identification of hazards and taking appropriate control measures.

It is as per Five steps explained in para (A) above.

Here quantification of hazards and their terminal consequences (damage

distances, severity of injury or loss etc.) are not worked out.

It is sufficient to think about the adequacy of existing control measures vis-a-vis

hazards identified and to adopt more safety measures if necessary.

Its important aspect is to consider the effect of control measures provided (in
place) and to think for the 'Residual Risk' and 'Residual Control Measures' only.

2. Quantitative Risk Assessment:

Here hazard potential is quantified, possible risk is also determined if failure rate
data available and then it is compared with the 'permissible standard'. This will indicate
whether calculated risk is lower or higher than the permissible limit. Based on this, new
control measures or modification in existing control measures can be decided.

Values of following "Hazard potentials' can be quantified

1. Properties of the material.
2. Storage parameters.
3. Process parameters.
4. Manual exposures.
5. Visible or measured hazards.
6. Transportation hazards.
7. Pollution hazards.

These values give 'severity' part of the risk.

Similarly values of "Control Measures provided" can be quantified depending on

the poor controls to the best controls.

Proper classification of good, better and best control measures, is necessary.

These values give 'probability' part of the risk.

Then by using the formula. Risk = Severity x Probability, the existing risk level can
be calculated and identified as low, high, higher or highest risk.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 61 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 This method is useful to carry out 'material wise' risk assessment. This method
and other methods using ranking matrix are used to carry out 'activity wise' risk
assessment also.

3. Other Methods

There are two methods:

(1) Method based on the formula of Risk R = Probability x Severity. This

method is mostly useful for assessing risks to workers in the factory.
Hazards are considered material wise or activity and sub activity wise.
(2) Method based on computer model. This method is mostly useful for
accessing risks to public in vicinity. Gas dispersion models are used and
toxic concentration or / and heat radiation ¹ect or / and explosion over
pressure effect at different distances (damage distances) are calculated.

Here it is assumed that if all or some control measures may fail, what would
be the highest risk (mostly to public) in terms of toxic effect, fire, explosion or
BLEVE effect and at what distances.

This calculation is very complex, needs 'source strength calculation', leak hole or
release dimensions, mass released or release rate, wind speed, weather conditions and
classification, path obstructions or sinking mechanism, dispersion calculation and use of
computer models. Safety, Phast, Aloha, Cirrus, Archie, IIT-Kanpur, Whazan, Effect etc.
are such computer models for assessment of this type of risks. Lastly foot prints and risk
counters are to be interpreted. Risk counters plotted on geographical plot plan can give
Arial view of the area likely to be affected and decision for evacuation or stay-in
condition.

Main purpose of this type of risk assessment is to assess the risk to the Public
and to make Off-site Emergency Plan based on those risks.

(D) Risk Counters (foot prints):

In case of toxic dispersion, normally three zones are considered. The inner most
or zone-I contains the highest concentrations of leaking gas wherein maximum
fatality/injury can be predicted. No entry or no rescue operation may be
possible there. Then in intermediate or zone-2, evacuation becomes
most necessary and must be carried out at the earliest possible
otherwise great fatalities or/and injuries may result. This is the target area
of emergency planning and rescue activities. But in doing so, use of
necessary personal protective equipment and vehicles is to be done very
carefully. The outermost or zone-3 is a safe zone but it can be affected
also if dispersion aggravates or lasts for a longer time. Therefore alert
and warning action is required in this zone. People must be advised to go
away by their own arrangement and should be helped if necessary.

Use of risks counters is useful in On-site and Off-site Emergency Plans for the
judgement of area likely to be affected and emergency preparedness for evacuation and
other emergency activities.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 62 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 (E) Risk Control Measures or Elements of Risk Management:

They are as under:

(a) Mission Identification:

1. Establishing risk management policies and procedures.
2. Risk communications.
3. Management of contract portfolios.
4. Claims supervision.
5. Reviewing, monitoring and evaluating the risk management programme.

(b) Risk and Uncertainty Assessment:

1. Hazard, identification.
2. Risk analysis.
3. Risk measurement.
4. Risk assessment.

(c) Risk Control:

1. Risk avoidance.
2. Risk or Loss prevention.
3. Risk or Loss reduction.
4. Information management.
5. Risk transfer. (Contract).

(d) Risk Financing:

1. Risk retention.
2. Risk transfer (Insurance).

(e) Programme Administration:

1. Day to day or short term planning.
2. Long term planning.

Risk Management Activities:

Basic steps of Risk Management are :

1. Identify the Hazards,
2. Analyse the Risk.
3. Select and Evaluate Remedies.
4. Implement any necessary Safeguards.
5. Audit & Review if necessary.

Risk control also includes methods to improve understanding or awareness within

an organisation of activities affecting exposure to risk.

Risk reduction activities can be focused On-

1. Altering or modifying the hazard.
2. Altering or modifying the environment in which the hazard exists.
3. Intervening in the processes whereby hazard and environment interact, e.g. fire
walls within a structure to separate fire-prone area from other area, shock

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 63 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 absorbers to stop transfer of vibrations, silencers to stop transfer of noise,
insulation to stop transfer of heat or electricity etc.

If however, risks cannot be controlled, the last resort is to transfer the risk by
contract of job or property, or insurance to pay for losses. Risk transfer offers complete
protection for the transferor. The burden of risk falls completely on the transferee. In case
of accident causing injury, death or damage to property, money can compensate the
financial losses but not the pain, suffering and loss to families. Thus risk transfer cannot
eliminate all effects of risk. Engineering risk control is the only best remedy.

Risk Managers' duties include

1. Assisting organisation in identifying risks.
2. Implementing risk control programmes.
3. Reviewing contracts and documents (e.g. safety audit, emergency plan, safety
reports etc.) including insurance for risk management purposes.
4. Providing education arid training on safety matters.
5. Implementing statutory provisions.
6. Arranging non-insurance financing schemes (e.g. self-insurance or captive
insurance subsidiaries).
7. Claims and litigation management.
8. Designing and co-ordinating employee benefit programmes.

4.4 Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) and Hazard Analysis :

This is an initial study to determine hazard causes, effects and controls. Facts of
proposed product, process or operation are to be known to determine hazards. For
example, for the product using electric power the hazards to be presumed are: electric
shock, burns, fire, sparking, hot surface, inadvertent starts of equipment, failure of the
equipment to operate at a critical time to cause accident, radiation effects, electrical
explosions etc. Similarly adverse effects of foreseeable causes like chemical exposures,
reactions, acceleration, mechanical effects, pressure etc. can be listed. Then appropriate
remedies are selected and applied.

Since the PHA is fast, cost effective and not complicated like other methods of
hazard assessment, it should be adopted as the first step. Its basic steps are as under:

1. Assume a type of accident or hazard possible (e.g. fire, explosion, toxic release,
finger cutting etc.)
2. Find out which plant component, system or machine can cause this accident (e.g.
storage vessel, reactor, pipeline, circular saw etc.).
3. Find out the event (result) initiating the hazard or accident (e.g. release of
explosive or toxic gas, runaway reaction, leakage, running without guard etc.).

This will naturally suggest the corresponding safety devices (safety valve, rupture
disc, alarms, gauges, guards, interlocks, trips etc.).
The component system or part in step-2 can then be further examined and
analysed for details of failure and how to remove them.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 64 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 This study indicates which system is more or less important from major hazard
point of view and to limit the assessment to priority problems and screening less
important ones.

Preliminary hazard identification is required at different stages of project as under

:

1. R & D : Chemicals, reactions, impurities and pilot plant.

2. Pre Design : Hazard indices, hazard studies.
3. Design : Process design checks, HAZOP, Failure mode and effects.
4. Commissioning : Safety audits, mechanical commissioning tests, NDT,
emergency planning.
5. Operation : Condition and corrosion monitoring.

PHA is generally used for early identification of hazards. It is based on -

Raw materials Operating environment

Intermediates Operations
Final products Other facilities
Plant equipment Safety equipment etc
Interface among system components.

For Hazard Analysis see Part 3.35 of Chapter 2. Based on this definition detailed
analysis should be carried out.

4.5 Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) :

This procedure considers each component of a plant in turn and all possible
failure modes and rates and their consequences. The results are recorded in a standard
format. HAZOP study is a well developed form of FMEA.

It is a process of hazard identification where all known failure modes of

components or features of a system are considered in turn and undesired outcomes are
noted.

It is a tabulation of system/plant equipment failure modes. -Each failure mode

assigns critical ranking. Human error/ operational error is not generally examined in
FMEA.

This is the method derived from reliability engineering. A product or a piece of

complex equipment is divided in its components and each component is studied to know
how it can fail, at what rate and what could be the effect on it or on the other
components. Failure rates of each item are determined and listed. The method is used to
determine satisfactory operational life of an equipment, how failures might occur, modes
and frequencies of failure and the necessity for proper and timely maintenance and
replacements. This knowledge can be used to improve the life and quality of the product.
Thus it is primarily more useful to a manufacturer than its user.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 65 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 FMEA has its own limitations. Data of failure rates and calculations for failure
frequency must be correct. The method cannot analyse the problems created by bad
design, adverse environment and operators' errors.

FMEA consists of imaginatively Constructing every conceivable situation that

could arise with the component, including its designed failure point (life expectancy) and
its effect on related components. Considerable imagination with much experience is
needed to foresee how a component of the system can cause an unwanted occurrence.

Failure Effect Analysis can be tabulated as under:

Item Assumed Possible Symptoms Consequences

No. Failure Causes
1 2 3 4 5

Compensatin Effec Probabilit Failure Remark

g provision t on y of classificatio s
occurrenc n
e
6 7 8 9 10

In above table, compensating provision identifies what should be done to avoid

the consequence of the assumed failure.

Probability of occurrence is the average elapsed operating time before a failure of

the assumed type will occur.

Probability of occurrence can be expressed in terms of average time between

failures as under :

Probable : 1 failure before 10000 hours of operation.

Reasonably Probable : 1 failure during 10001 to 100000 hours of operation.
Remote : 1 failure during 100001 to 10 million hours of operation
Extremely remote : 1 failure after 10 million hours of operation

Failure frequency data is difficult to obtain. It is obtained from two types of testing
of component i.e. performance test or reliability test.

Failure classification distinguishes between the possible effects of the assumed

failure. A four-part classification is safe, marginal, critical and catastrophic indicating
increasing severity.

4.6 Hazard and 0perability( H AZOF) Study:

See Part 3.40 of Chapter-2 'for basic discussion. HAZOP is defined as 'The
application of a formal systematic critical examination to the process and engineering
intentions of the facilities to assess the hazard potential of mal-operation or malfunction
of individual items of equipment and the consequential effects on the facility as a whole'.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 66 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 In HAZOP a multidisciplinary team searches deviations from design intent through
fixed sets of guide words or checklists or knowledge.

HAZOP can be conducted to check the designs or operating procedures for a new
project or an existing one. It can also be conducted to improve safety of existing facilities.
'It is also useful before implementing significant modifications or for other operational or
legal reasons. After carrying out the Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) as explained
earlier, the plant component, system or machine/ equipment part which can cause 'major
hazard' becomes known to us. Now to find out deviations or malfunctions leading to such
event and its mode of operation, HAZOP helps us. Thus HAZOP is complimentary to
PHA.

HAZOP study is carried out to determine deviations from normal operation and
operational malfunctions which could lead to uncontrolled events.

Although the HAZOP study was developed to supplement experience-based

practices when a new design or technology is involved, its use has expanded to almost
all phases of a plant's life. It is based on the principle that several experts with different
backgrounds can interact and identify more problems when working together then when
working separately and combining their results.

Therefore HAZOP study is performed by a multidisciplinary expert group always

including workers familiar with the installation.

The examination procedure takes a full description of the process, systematically

questions every part of it to discover how deviations from the intention of design can
occur and decides whether these deviations can give rise to hazard.

Each part of design is analysed with questions formulated around a number of

guide words, which ensure that the question posed to test the integrity of each part of
design will explore every conceivable way in which that design could deviate from design
intention and then each deviation is considered for what the consequences it could lead
to. The potential hazards are noted for remedial action. Trivial or meaningless
consequences are dropped out.

Stages at which HAZOP can be carried out are

1. At an early stage of development to decide the site and identify major hazards.
2. At design freeze stage i.e. when design is completed and construction is to be
started.
3. At pre-start-up stage i.e. when construction is completed and the operation is to
be started.
4. Studies on existing plants.
5. Studies prior to plant modification.
6. Studies prior to taking a plant, out of service.
7. Studies on research facilities.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 67 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Procedure for HAZOP study follows the sequence(1) Define objective and scope
(2) Select the team (3) Prepare for the study (4) Carry out the examination (5) Follow up
and (6) Record the results.

The objectives may be (1) to check a design (2) to decide whether and where to
build (3) to decide whether to buy an equipment (4) to obtain a list of questions to put to
a supplier (5) to check running instructions and (6) to improve the safety of existing
facilities etc.

The team may be composed of Mechanical Engineer, Chemical Engineer, R & D

Chemist, Production Manager, Project Manager, Instrument/ Electrical Engineers, Civil
Engineer etc. The team should not be too large. The team is headed by an experienced
specialist from works management or by a specially trained consultant.

After examining one part of the design and recording potential hazards if any, the
study proceeds to examine the next part of the design and it is repeated until the whole
plant has been studied.

The Preparative Work includes four stages (1) Obtain the data (2) Convert the
data into a suitable form (3) Plan the sequence for the study and (4) Arrange the
necessary meetings.

After discovery of a hazard, follow-up action becomes necessary. There may be a

number of possible actions. Generally they are of four types :

1. Change in the process (material, recipe etc.).

2. Change in process conditions (pressure, temperature, flow etc.).
3. Alteration to the physical design including safety guarding.
4. Change of operating methods.

While choosing between such possible actions, two categories become relevant :

1. Those actions which remove the cause of hazard.

2. Those actions which reduce the consequences.

Obviously the first category is first preferable. But then the study should be carried
out at design stage to execute it at the minimum cost and better integrity.

Suppose the hazard is 'sudden evolution of gas and pressure due to it'. For this,
four actions are possible -

1. Change the material to eliminate the possibility of gas generation.

2. Change the process condition (e.g. cooling, catalyst, low temperature,
temperature control and Cut off etc.) to control the gas generation.
3. Provide safety valve/rupture disc and vent for safe discharge.
4. Provide personal protective equipment.

Action-I is 100% effective and should be die first choice. Action-2 may be
selected, if Action-1 is not possible and reliability of the control system is good. Action-3
may be selected, if Action-2 is not possible and effective only if the vent and dump-

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 68 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 vessel can be designed to cope with the full discharge. Action-4 is the last resort if
Action-I, 2, 3 are not possible or not effective.

Recording needs 'hazard file' containing

1. Copy of the data as under :.

(1) Process description, process flow diagram, material and enthalpy balances.
(2) Piping and instrumentation diagrams.
(3) Process equipment layouts - plan, elevation and section.
(4) Operating manual.
(5) Safety manual.
(6) Vendor information (P & I diagrams).
(7) Equipment specification sheets.
(8) Piping specifications.
(9) Plot plan.
(10) MSDS for materials.
(11) Any reports on safety reviews.

Copies of such documents should be marked by the team leader slating that they
are examined.

2. Copy of all the working papers, questions, recommendations, redesigns etc.

produced by the team and others as a result of the study.

The file should be retained on the plant and a report be prepared for the guidance
of the managers.

Guidewords used in HAZOP are given below.

A List of some Guide Words

Guide Meanings Comments

Words
NO or The complete negation of No part of the intentions is
NOT these intentions achieved but nothing else
happens.
MORE Quantitative increases or These refer to quantities +
decreases properties such as flow
rates and temperatures as
LESS well as activities like
‘HEAT’ and ‘REACT’.
AS WELL A qualitative increase All the design and
AS operating intentions are
achieved together with
some additional activity.
A qualitative decrease
PART OF Only some of the
intentions are achieved;
some are not.
REVERSE The logical opposite of the This is mostly applicable

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 69 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 intention to activities, for example
reverse flow or chemical
reaction. It can also be
applied to substances,
e.g. ‘POISON’ instead of
‘ANTIDOTE’ or ‘D” instead
of ‘L’ optical isomers.
OTHER
THAN Complete substitution No part of the original
intention is achieved.
Something quite different
happens.

A Sequence of Study proceeds as follows.

Sequence of HAZOP Examination

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 70 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Various methods for HAZOP studies are described by DOW Safety Guide,
HAZOP studies by ICI, by Chemical Industry Safety and Health Council (CISHC), by
Kletz, Gibbsen, Lawley and other experts. The basis of studies may be a word model, a
process flow sheet, a plant layout, fault free technique etc.

See Reference No. 29 for more details.

4.7 Hazard Ranking (DOW & MOND Index):

This is a method of identifying and ranking of hazards present in a process plant.

It was developed by Dow Chemical, USA and is usually known as Dow Fire and
Explosion Index. ICI improvement on this is known as Mond Index.

The index provides weightage for inventory, flammability, reactivity, toxicity and
hazards due to reaction exotherm, operating condition, corrosivity, plant drainage,
access, rotating equipment, leaky joints etc.

The ranking indicates damage radius, maximum probable property damage

(MPPD) and maximum possible days outage (MPDO).The ranking is useful for decision
making, for example, it shows why protection is more extensive in LPG storage sphere
than LPG reflux drum.

DOW and MOND Index:

Various hazard indices have been developed to (1) Qualify the expected damage
due to fire, explosion or toxicity (2) Identify the equipment that would create or escalate
an accident and (3) Communicate such risk potential to management to take necessary
remedial measures e.g. increasing separation distance, erecting a blast wall or fireproof
construction and revision of fire fighting and gas control facilities. '

The most famous and widely used hazard index is the Dow Index developed by
the Dow Chemical Company of USA since 1964. The MOND Index is an extended Dow
Index based on the similar methodology with an useful extension e.g. to estimate fire
load of an area and a unit toxicity index.

In the first three editions the methods of determining the Fire and Explosion Index
(F & El) were developed and in the fourth edition, the method of calculating Maximum
Probable Property Damage (MPPD) from the F & El was suggested and a Toxicity Index
(n) was introduced. For details the Company's Guide has to be referred.

To develop an F&EI and risk analysis summary, we need -

1. An accurate plot plan of the plant.

2. A process flowsheet.
3. An F& El Hazard Classification Guide.
4. An F& El Form.
5. An Unit Analysis Summary.
6. A Plant Risk Analysis Summary, and
7. A cost data for the installed process equipment under study.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 71 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 A schematic diagram of procedure to calculate F & El, MPPD, MPDO (Maximum
Probable Days Outage) and BI (Business Interruption loss) is shown below.

As revealed from the figure, the procedure for assessment is summarised as

under

1. Identify on the plot plan any Process Units that are considered pertinent to the
process and that would have the greatest impact on the magnitude of a fire or
explosion.
2. Determine the Material Factors (MF) for each process unit. It can be calculated
from flammability and reactivity, or from its ready table (some figures are given
below).

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 72 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 3. Evaluate each of the contributing hazard factors listed on the F & El Form, under
'General Process Hazards' and 'Special Process Hazards' and apply the
appropriate penalties. This will give F1 and F2.
4. Unit hazard factor F3 = F1 x F2. This gives the degree of hazard exposure of the
process unit. From the chart, using unit hazard factor with the MF to determine
Damage Factor (DF) which represents the degree of loss exposure.
5. F & El = MF x F,. From the chart, by using F & El, Area (radius) of Exposure
surrounding the process unit can be determined.
6. Determine the Rupee value of all equipment within the Area of Exposure. This
value is used to obtain the Base maximum Probable Property Damage (Base
MPPD).
7. The Base MPPD can be reduced to an actual MPPD by applying various Credit
Factors and/ or 'by relocating certain high value equipment outside the Area of
Exposure.
8. Actual MPPD is used to obtain MPDO, from which Business Interruption (BI) can
be calculated.

Material Factor (MF) is the basic starting value in the computation of the F & El
and other risk analysis values. It is a measure of the intrinsic rate of potential energy
release from fire or explosion produced by combustion or chemical reaction.

The MF is obtained from N, and N, the NFPA signals expressing flammability and
reactivity (or instability) of a material at ambient temperatures. As fire and reaction
hazards increase with temperature, 'Temperature Adjustment of MF' is also required. In
case of mixture, normally the MF of the component with the highest MF value is
considered.

The MF is a number in the range from I to 40 and higher number indicates higher
hazard. MF and Heat of combustion HC of some common chemicals are given in
following table :

MF & HC Values

Chemical MF HcBTU/lb
Acetaldehyde 24 10500
Acetone 16 12300
Acetonitrile 24 12600
Acetylene 29 20700
Acrylonitrile 24 13700
Ammonia 4 8000
Benzene 16 17300
Bromine 1 0
Butane 21 19700
Carbon disulphide 16 6100
Carbon monoxide 21 4300
Chlorine 1 0
Ethyl alcohol 16 11500
Ethylene 24 20800
Ethylene oxide 29 11700

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 73 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Formaldehyde 21 8000
Gasoline (petrol) 16 18800
Hydrogen 21 51600
Hydrogen sulphide 21 6500
Methyl alcohol 16 8600
Naphtha 16 18000
Nitrobenzene 10 10400
Nitro-glycerine 40 7800
Phenol 10 13400
Sulphur 4 4000
Sulphur dioxide 0 0
Toluene 16 17400
Vinyl chloride 21 8000
Xylene 16 17600

In the above table higher MF indicates high hazard potential and higher H.
indicates high heat generation while burning, which in turn, indicates more quantity of fire
fighting material (e.g. water, foam, DCP etc.) and equipment. MF for dusts is determined
by different methods.

The Toxicity Index is used to evaluate process exposure level for toxicity hazard
and is defined as -

Tl = Th (P+S)
100 100

where Th is the factor for the most hazardous material present in appreciable
quantity with the lowest TLV, P the total GPH (General Process Hazards) penalties used
and S the total SPH (Special Process Hazards) penalties used.

Th can be known from the NFPA health rating N, as under

Nh Th
0 0
1 50
2 125
3 250
4 325

Assessment from Index : The degree of hazard potential can be determined

from the value of F &: El as under:

F & El Range Degree of Hazard

0 – 60 Light
61 – 96 Moderate
97 – 127 Intermediate
128 – 158 Heavy
159 & above Severe

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 74 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Example : Suppose General Process Hazard factor F1 and Special Process
hazard factor F2 have been calculated as 2.8 and 3.8 respectively. Then with a MF 24 for
acrylonitrile (ACN), the F & EI value is F3 x MF – F1 x F2 x MF - 2.8 x 2.8 x 24 = 255. As it
is above 159, it indicates severe hazard.

Based on F & EI and toxicity index TI, following categories are available:

Category F & EI TI Degree of Hazard

I F<65 T<6 Low
II 65<F<95 6<T<10 Medium
III F>95 T>10 High

Fire Potential can also be assessed if the Fire Load F (BTU/ft2) for particular area
is known (calculated). Then a range of expected fire duration and hazard categories can
be assessed from following table.

Fire load. Duration & Hazard Category

Fireload F in Range of Hazard Example

BTU / ft2 of expected category
normal fire
working area duration
x 103 in hours
0-50 0.25-0.5 Light Buildings
50-100 0.5-1 Low Dwellings
100-200 1-2 Moderate
200-400 2-4 High Factories
400-1000 4-10 Very high Occupied
1000-2000 10-20 Intensive Buildings
2000-5000 20-50 Very Rubber
5000-10000 50-100 extreme 100-
Ware-
houses

Explosion Potential can be known from the following table if Internal Plant
Explosion Index 'E' or Aerial Explosion Index 'A' is known.

Category E A
Light 0-1 0-10
Low 1-25 10-30
Moderate 2.5-4 30-100
High 4-6 100-500
Very high >6 >500

Thus by knowing the hazard potential categories, inter-unit separation distances

and unit boundary distances can be determined from the following tables.

Inter Unit Boundary Distances

Unit Minimum distance in Meters to Unit ‘B’ having Reduced Dow F & EI

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 75 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 ‘A’ of of
Reduc M Li Mode Moder He Extr
ed il gh rate ately avy eme
Dow F d t Heavy
& EI
Mild 0 5 6 8 10 12
Light 5 6 8 10 12 15
Moder 6 8 10 12 15 17
ate
Moder 8 10 12 15 17 20
ately
heavy
Heavy 1 12 15 17 20 25
0
Extrem 1 15 17 20 25 30
e 2

Within Unit Boundary Distances

Unit Reduced Minimum distance in Meters to

Dow F & EI Works Plant Offices,
Boundary Boundary Amenities
Control
Rooms etc.
Mild 20 15 10
Light 25 20 12
Moderate 30 25 15
Moderately 40 30 20
heavy
Heavy 50 35 30
Extreme 75 50 45

It should be borne in mind that all such assessment and distances are
approximation and suggest a minimum guideline. The complex computation method has
its own limitations. DOW index cannot predict probability of hazard occurring. Corrosion
and leakage have special effects. Reactions difficult to control, operation in or near
flammable range and greater than average explosion hazard certainly contribute to high
risk category.

Revised DOW index model is also available.

4.8 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) :

It is a method to represent the logical combinations of various systems which

lead to a particular outcome (top event).

It is a graphic model that determines various combinations of equipment faults

and failures that can result in an accident.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 76 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 This is a sophisticated form of reliability assessment and it requires considerable
time and skill. The procedure is to start from a selected undesirable top event such as
'gas coming out of a scrubber' and then trace it back to the combination of faults and
conditions which could cause the events to occur. Apart from identification of hazards, it
is widely used for quantitative risk analysis. It will be necessary to obtain meaningful
failure data of each component to arrive at the frequency of occurrence of the 'top event'.

In fault tree analysis, abnormal operations are assumed in normal operations of a

plant. The ultimate abnormal event (such as gas leakage) is shown in a rectangle at the
top. Then all combinations of individual failures that can lead to that abnormal event are
shown in the logical format of the Fault Tree. By estimating the individual failure
probabilities and then using the appropriate arithmetical expressions, the probability of
the top abnormal event can be calculated or predicted. This Fault Tree Analysis makes it
easy to investigate the impact of alternative preventive measures. Fault tree is developed
from top to bottom through a series of symbols which define the flow of logic from the
base causes of an event itself. Detailed' probability data are most desirable.

This method of Fault Tree Analysis was developed by Bell Laboratories (USA) in
1961 to predict potential catastrophic events which could occur with the Air Force. It is
more useful to assess chemical hazards.

Without specific Fault Tree symbols (symbology), a schematic diagram of one top
event (possibility of fire) is shown below.

Some sample top events for Fault Tree Analysis are

1. Injury to __________
2. Damage to __________ from __________
3. Explosion of __________
4. Loss of control of __________
5. Rupture of______
6. Loss of pressure in __________
7. Overpressurisation of __________

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 77 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 8. Unscheduled release of __________
9. Collapse of __________
10. Overheating of__________
11. Uncontrolled venting of __________
12. Inadvertent start of etc. __________

A computer is much useful to carry out mathematical Fault Tree calculations using
Boolean algebra.

4.9 Event Tree Analysis (ETA) :

Event tree analysis is a method to illustrate the intermediate and final outcomes
which may arise after the occurrence of a selected initial event.

This technique is complementary to Fault Tree, but in reversed direction. Whereas

a fault tree starts from a final event and works from the top down, an Event Tree begins
with an initial event such as a power failure and explores all possible outcomes by
working from the bottom up. An illustration is shown below, for an initial event of release
of flammable gas.

ETA identifies the sequences of events following an initiating event that results in
accident. Event tree considers operator response or safety system response to the
initiating event in determining the potential sequence.

Some sample initial (bottom) events for Event Tree Analysis are :

1. Failure of pump of____

2. Failure of stirring of ____
3. Failure of water/cooling media/heating media in ______
4. Stoppage of motor at ____

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 78 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 5. Mistake of____

4.10 Accident or Cause Consequence Analysis :

Cause-Consequence Analysis identifies potential accident consequences and the

basic causes of these accidents.

Any hazard or risk assessment is incomplete if the consequences of a possible

accident are not known. Therefore the last step in hazard assessment is to analyse the
consequences that a potential major (credible) accident may-cause on the plant itself, on
die workers, on the surrounding and on the environment. Therefore an accident
consequence analysis should contain

1. Cause of the accident (fire, explosion, rupture of a vessel, pipe, valve etc.).
2. Estimate of the mass released (flammable, explosive, toxic quantity).
3. Calculation of the dispersion of the material released and the damage distance,
(liquid, vapour or gas).
4. Estimate of the effects (heat radiation, blast wave, toxic, degree of burn, severity
etc.).

1 & 2 can be known by using the results of the hazard assessment while
mathematical models have to be applied in finding 3 & 4. See Part 4.12 for effect of 2,3,4
above.

The results of ACA can be used to select necessary PPE, FFE, alarm or pressure
relief device. It is also useful in deciding plant siting and layout and emergency planning
in addition to risk assessment.

However higher estimates may lead to unnecessary additions to a plant and

excessive capital cost. Therefore it is advisable that a company using such quantitative
risk analysis should use its own experience and judgement to define targets for
comparing the results.

The effects after accidental release of a chemical depend on many factors like
type and quantity of the released chemical, meteorological conditions; topography,
location or presence of ignition source. The accident scenarios can be divided into
different categories such as

1. Liquefied gas or boiling liquid release under pressure (e.g. LPG)

2. Flammable/explosive gas release (e.g. H)
3. Toxic gas release (e.g. CL,)
4. Non-boiling liquid release (e.g. benzene)

Following figure shows the typical chemical discharge modes and their linkup to
show their effects (radiation, explosion, toxic release etc.) Consequence analysis
considers physical effects and damage caused by them. A combination of different
discharge effects should also be considered.

Different Discharge Modes to Consider Consequence Analysis Chemical

Discharge

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 79 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Extensive data are to be collected during preliminary MCAA. It includes physical,
chemical, thermodynamic, transport and safety properties of hazardous chemicals,
process units and overall layout of the chemical plant and meteorological and
demographic conditions. Subsequently the integrity of the process and storage units,
process activities and work culture at each site are to be assessed. .

Overflow models calculate the source strength of the released material. Post-
release phenomena (fire, explosion or toxic dispersion) can be quantified with the help of
computer software packages based on mathematical models given below. Gaussian
model is useful for neutral density (lighter) gases while other models (e.g. 3D) arc also
available for heavy gas dispersions.

Mathematical models for consequence analysis

Sr. Phenomenon Application models

No.
1 Outflow
Liquid Bernoulli flow equations; phase
Two phase equilibria; multiphase flow models;
mixtures Orifice/nozzle flow equations; Gas
Gas/vapour laws; Critical flow criteria.

2 Discharges

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 80 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Spreading liquid Spreading rate equations for non
penetrable surfaces based on
Vapour jets cylindrical liquid pools.
Flashing liquids Turbulent: free jet model. Two zone
Evaporation of flash vaporisation model.
liquids on land Spreading boiling and moving
and water boundary heat transfer models; Film
and metastable boiling phenomenon;
Cooling of semi-infinite medium.

3 Dispersions
Heavy Gas (i) Buoyancy dominated, stably
stratified and passive dispersion
models (similarity). (ii)3D models
based on momentum, mass and
Neutral Gas energy conservation.
Gaussian dispersion models for
Atmospheric neutrally byoyant plumes.
stability Boundary layer theory (turbulence);
Gaussian distribution models:

4 Heat radiation
Liquid pool fires Burning rate, heat radiation and
incident heat correlations (semi-
emperical); Flame propagation
Jet fires Fireballs behaviour models.
Jet dispersion models API fireball
models relating surface heat flux of
flame, geometric view" factor and
transmission coefficients.

5 Explosions
Boiling liquid Fireball and physical overpressure
expanding vapour models, Deflagration and detonation
clod explosion models; ID gas dimensional
computations.

6 Vulnerability Probit functions; non-stochastic

vulnerability models.

Criteria for heat radiation, explosion and toxic effects can be used to classify the
accident scenarios for further investigations and to calculate effect and damage for
primary events. Such damage criteria are as under :

Damage Criteria

Heat Radiation Explosions Toxic Gas

Dispersions
Incident Damage Peak Damage Damage
Flux over

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 81 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 kw/m2 pressure
, bar
37.5 100% 0.3 Heavy The extent of
lethality; (90%) damage
Heavy 0.1 depends
damage Repairabl upon the
to e (10%) concentratio
equipmen n of the toxic
t compound in
25 100% 0.03 Damage the
lethality; of glass atmosphere;
nonpiloted 0.01 the relation
ignition Crack of between
windows percent of
12.5 100% injuries and
lethality; the toxic load
piloted is normally
ignition given in the
4 Not lethal; form of
1st degree Probit
burns Functions.
1.6 No
discomfort
even after
long
exposure

Past accidents provide useful clues and supporting information for the effect and
damage calculations. Data bank TACTS' of past accidents is available from TNO. The
Netherlands has vital information of more than 15000 chemical accidents that occurred in
various parts of the world. Such databank of accidents in our country can be developed
by NSC or LPA.

4.11 Maximum Credible Accident Assessment (MCAA) :

See Part 3.100 of Chapter-2 for definition.

MCA means maximum credible accident i.e. an accident with a maximum

reasonable damage distance possibility.

MCAA means maximum credible accident analysis or assessment. Here

probability of accident occurrence is not calculated but the probability of maximum
damaging effect (potential and distance) is calculated to assess injury to people or/and
properties in the surrounding area.

Hazard potentiality is considered by (1) Type of material stored/processed

(toxicity, flammability etc.) (2) Quantity of the material (it affects distance) (3) Process or
storage conditions (temperature, pressure, flow etc.) (4) Location of the unit or activity
with respect to adjacent population.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 82 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Based on above factors, units/activities are selected, accident scenarios
established and effect (domino or cascade) and damage calculations are carried out.

Following steps are employed in MCAA :

1. Chemical Inventory Analysis.
2. Identification of hazardous processes in individual units.
3. Identification of chemical release and accident scenarios.
4. Data acquisition for MCAA.
5. Effect and damage calculations for the primary events'
6. Analysis of past accidents of similar nature.
7. Short listing of maximum credible accident scenarios.

These steps are explained below in brief.

The chemical inventory is to be identified by MSIHC Rules or Rule 68 J of the

Gujarat Factories Rules (see Part 10.8 of Chapter-28), short listed and prioritised on the
basis of hazard potential. The chemicals are generally classified as non-boiling and
boiling liquids, gases/vapours and solids.

Hazardous processes- are also identified by above statutory provisions. Runaway

reactions need due consideration during preliminary MCAA.

4.12 Vulnerability Analysis :

Vulnerability is the susceptibility of life, property and the environment to injury or

damage if a hazard manifests its potential.

The vulnerability analysis identifies what part of the community is susceptible to

more damage if a hazardous substance releases. It provides information on :

1. Vulnerable zone (affected area) for a spill or release and the conditions that
affect the zone (wind speed & direction, size of release).
2. Population, in terms of size (density) and types (residents, workers, sensitive
population hospitals, schools, nursing or care centres, old men's shelter, prisons,
spectators in auditoriums or stadiums) lying within the vulnerable zone.
3. Private and public property (homes, offices, businesses) that may be damaged,
including essential support system (water, milk, food, fuel, power, medical) and
transport centres, and
4. Environments (land, air, water, crops, food, vegetable, animal habitats, livestock
etc.) that may be adversely affected and impact on sensitive natural areas and
endangered species.

To get information on 1 (i.e. vulnerable zone) mathematical and computer models

or probit equation can be used. To get information on 2,3, & 4, following steps are useful
-

1. Survey of the area (first hand information by driving through the area).
2. Interviews of fire, police, emergency and planning department personnel.
3. Review of planning department documents and statistics on land use, population,
highway usage and the area's infrastructure.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 83 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 By consequence analysis damage or physical effects resulting from the release of
hazardous substances can be determined while by vulnerability analysis such effects
(consequences) can be translated in terms of injuries and damage to exposed people,
property and environment. All such exercises are useful for emergency planning (i.e. on-
site and off-site emergency plans).

In estimating size of vulnerable zones following variables arc considered :

1. Quantity and rate of release to air. This depends on (a) Total quantity released (b)
Physical state (solid, liquid, gas) and (c) Conditions (pressure, temperature) of
storage or handling.
2. Meteorological conditions.
3. Surrounding topography.
4. Level of Concern (LOC) i.e. the concentration of an extremely hazardous chemical
(EHS) in air above which there may be serious irreversible health effects or death
as a result of a single exposure for a relatively short period of time.

No precise measure of LOC is available. Different guidelines suggest

different values. It is to be estimated from IDLH, LC/LD, TLV, STEL and other
permissible values. Rough estimation is as under -

Estimated IDLH = LCL0, or

= LC50 x 0.1, or
= LCL0 x 0.1, or
= LC50 x 0.01

Then LOC = 0.1 x estimated IDLH or direct IDLH available.

LOC (in gm/m3) = LOC (in ppm) x MW

1000 24.5
Note : IDLH immediately dangerous to life & health, LC=lethal concentration (gas),
LD=lcthal dose (solid or liquid), TLV=threshold limit value, STEL=short term
exposure level and MW=molecular weight. See Part 6.9 of Chapter24 for details.

5. Estimating vulnerable zones for initial screening and revaluation of the estimated
zones as shown below.

It is important to mention that different assumptions or conditions

give different radius of estimated vulnerable zones as shown in the figure.

The four circles differ as under -

1. Selection of higher LOC.

2. Use of higher wind speed and less atmospheric stability. -
3. Small quantity and less rate of release.
4. Radius for initial screening zone.

Calculations should be based on credible worst case assumptions and

considering wind speed, stability class and chemical toxicity. Instantaneous and

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 84 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 continuous releases including spills, leaks, fires, explosions and BLEVE should be
considered. Multiple point sources operating concurrently may be considered. Gaussian
or other models (see Part 14.2 & 14.3 of Chapter-18) may be used depending on
prevailing conditions. Site effects of terrain are relevant. The results of the calculations
should be represented in graphical format.

Use of Probit Equation :

The probit function is given by

P = K1 + K2 + LogC

where P = Probit, a measure for the percentage of people exposed who incur a
particular injury (for conversion table from probit to percentages see Part 6.2.3 or
Reference No. 27), K1 = a constant depending on the type of injury or type of load or
causative factor C and K2 = a constant depending on the type of load C.

For toxic release calculations, probit equation is given by -

P = K1+K2Log(Cnt)

where C = concentration of the toxic substance in mg/m3, t = the exposure time in

minutes and K1, K2 and n are constants depending on the toxic substance.

For example, these values for three main gases are given as :

Chlorine, P = - 10.29 +.0.92 Log (C2t)

Ammonia, P = - 27.27 + 2.27 Log (C1.36t)
SO2 P = - 17.73 + 2.10 Log (Ct)

These equations estimate that in case of chlorine, death will occur in 50% of the
persons exposed to a concentration of 1050 mg/m3 at an exposure time of 15 minutes
and in case of SO2, 1% mortality will occur to a concentration of 550 "g/ 3 at 30 min
exposure time.

Fire : For heat radiation calculations, probit equation is given by –

For lethality, P = -36.38 + 2.56 Log (C4/3t)

For first degree burn,
P = -39.83 + 3.0186 Log (C4/3t)

where,
C = thermal load W/m2 and t = exposure time in seconds. The values given are for
unprotected body. If people are wearing clothes, injuries are assumed to be reduced by a
factor of 7.

See Part 6.2.3 for further discussion.

Explosion : A pressure wave caused by BLEVE or gas cloud explosion will make
probable damage as under:
Peak over Type of damage

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 85 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 pressure
(bar)
0.01 Windows smashed.
0.03 Damage by flying fragments of glass.
0.1 10% of houses seriously damaged.
0.3 90% of houses seriously damaged.
A peak overpressure of 0.1 bar is taken as the limit for fatality and 0.03 bar as the
limit for causing wounds. Within the zone of a peak overpressure of 0.3 bar, the risk of
death in houses is I in 80 people.

Thus vulnerable analysis employs scientific assumptions and calculations to

estimate damage zones and number of people likely to be affected. Emergency planning
is not possible without such efforts.

4.13 What if Analysis :

The method involves possible deviations from die design, construction,

modification, or operating plant. A question 'What if is asked, e.g. What if wrong material
is charged? What if pump stops functioning?

This method identifies possible accident event sequences and thus identifies
the hazards consequences and steps for risk reduction. -

5 RELIABILITY ENGINEERING
Hazard control technology mostly involves the probabilistic methods to detect
failure possibilities and accidents. Reliability engineering is a branch concerning this
aspect.

Various topics on reliability engineering include statistics, mathematics, set theory,

failure rate and analysis, unreliability, availability, failure distributions including
exponential, binomial and lognormal distributions etc., repair and maintenance, scries,
parallel and standby systems, Marcov models, Monte Carlo simulation graphs, diagrams
and flow sheets and computer programmes.

Application of reliability engineering in process industry is very wide. It is

applicable to mechanical, electrical and instrument systems, critical equipment and
devices, nuclear systems, quality control, analysis of faults and abnormal occurrences,
repair and maintenance etc.

5.1 Principles of Reliability Engineering:

IS.-10139 on presentation of reliability, maintainability and availability

predictions and IS:8161 (II Parts) on guide for equipment reliability testing are most
relevant. Reliability of electrical/electronic equipment and performance data is given in
IS:7354 (6 Parts), 8607 (Part-8) and 1885 (Part 39) electro technical vocabulary -
reliability of electronic and electrical items. IS:8161 guide for equipment reliability testing,
Part-1 is for principles and procedures and out of total II parts. Parts 6 & 7 are on tests

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 86 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 for validity of constant failure rate assumption and meantime between failures. They
should be referred for details.

Reliability is defined as the probability that an item will perform a required function
under stated conditions for a stated period of time.

Thus reliability depends on probability, time and failure, I;ailure may be due to
failure in operation (e.g. equipment in continuous service) or failure to operate on
demand or failure to operate before or after demand (e.g. equipment operating
intermittently).

Probability P of a particular event is

P= Lim Number of occurrences of the event

n Total number of trials (n)

Thus if fire happens 5 times when trials (n) to cause it are made 10 times, the
probability is 0.5, or

P= Lim 5
n 10

If an equipment fails 3 times when total operations (chances to fail) happened

1000 times, the probability or failure rate is said to be of 0.003.

If a person falls 2 times when he climbs a particular staircase 100 times, the
probability of falling or the falling rate is said to be of 0.02.

Reliability - R(t) of an element or system can be defined as the probability that the
element or system will operate to an agreed level of performance, for a specified period,
subject to specified conditions.

In a measurement system 'agreed level of performance' could mean, for example,

an accuracy of 1.5%. If the measurement system is giving error more than this, it is
considered to have failed, even though it is otherwise working normally.

Reliability varies with fane. A system just checked and calibrated should have a
reliability of I when placed in service. After a year the reliability may be only 0.5 as the
probability of failure increases.

Unreliability U(t) can be defined as the probability that the element or system will
fail to operate to an agreed level of performance, for a specified period subject to
specified conditions.

The sum of reliability and unreliability must be unity, i.e.

R(t) + U(t) = 1

See following figure for this relationship.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 87 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Variation of reliability and unreliability with time for constant failure rate and no
repair.

Unreliability also depends on time. A system just checked and calibrated should
have an unreliability zero, when first placed in service but it may increase to say 0.5 in
few months.

Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) is applicable to any type of equipment whose
faulty component or unit can be replaced or repaired. Suppose N identical elements or
systems are tested for a total period T years. Each fault is recorded, the equipment is
repaired, put back into service and the total number of faults F during T found. Then

MTBF = NT
FN

where the test interval T does not include the total repair time. Thus if 50 faults are
recorded for 100 differential pressure transducers over 2 years, the

MTBF = 100 x 2 = 4 years

50

Failure rate - F is the average number of faults per item of equipment, per unit
time. It is mostly constant over much of their working life and therefore reciprocal of
MTBF i.e.

F = 1 = FN
MTBF NT

The failure rate varies throughout the life of the equipment shown as under.

Variation in Failure rate (bathtub curve)

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 88 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Three phases - early failure, mature failure (normal working life) and wear-out failure give
bathtub curve as shown in the figure. The early failure region, lasting normally for 6
months, is due to weak components and unfamiliarity in operating the system. The
mature region, lasting possibly 10 years, is characterised by a low constant failure rate,
all weak components have been removed from the system and the system is being
operated correctly. The wear-out region is characterised by an increasing failure rate as
components reach the end of their .working life.

Relationship between R(t), U(t) and F is given by

R(t) = ns = e-Ft and U (t) = nf = 1-e-Ft

no no

where ns = no – nf = number of items still serviceable,

no = items of equipment set in operation at time t = 0, nf = items survive after time t.

Reliability of a system in series is shown in Fig. 19. Here S elements of a system

are in series with failure rates F1, F2, Fi, Fs. The system will only survive if each clement
survives.

F1 F2 Fi Fs

Reliability of a system in series

If one element fails then the system fails. Assuming that the reliability of each
element is independent of the other elements, then the system reliability is the product of
the element reliabilities i.e.

Rsyst =R1R2...R....Rs
= e-F1t x e-F2t … e-Fit … x eFst
= e-Fsyst = e-(F1+F2+..Fi..+Fs)t

and =Fsyst = F1 + F2 + ..Fi.. + Fs

where Fsys is the overall system failure rate and F1 F2. Fs are individual failure rates of S
elements.

Reliability of a system in parallel is shown below. Here S systems are in parallel

with their unreliabilities U1, U2, Ui, Us.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 89 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 U1

U2

Ui

Us
Reliability of 'S' systems in parallel

The overall systems will only fail if every individual system fails. Assuming that the
unreliability of each system is independent of unreliability of the other systems, the
overall unreliability is the product of the individual system unreliabilities i.e.

Uoverall = U1 x U2 x Ui x …. Us

Common Mode Failure is that failure due to fault which causes more than one
element in a system to fail. For example, loss of air supply to a pneumatic flow control
loop causes failure of D/P transmitter, controller and valve.

Failure Rate Data of various components are needed for reliability calculations.
Following Table gives some such data from international literature.

Average Failure Rates for some mechanical, hydra hydraulic and pneumatic
components

Sr. Component Failure Rate Type of Fault

No. % per 1000
hrs.
1 Seals or valves, Gaskets, 0.05 Leakage /
Joints(pipes), Orifices, blockage
Diaphragms (metal), Bellows
(metal)
2 Bourdon tubes 0.005 Leakage
0.02 Creep
3 Joints (mechanical) 0.02 Breakage
4 Nuts, bolts, rods, shafts 0.002 Breakage or
loose
5 Pressure vessels 0.3 Rupture or
leakage
6 Pipelines Failure rate
per meter per
year Leakage
Dia upto 3” Rupture 10-5
Dia 3” – 15” 10-6 10-6
Dia > 15” 10-7 10-8
-
7 Failure rate Per year

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 90 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Rupture Leakage
Pressure vessel Rupture 10x5-5
Atmosph. Vessel 10 x 5-6 10-3
10-4
8 Human error Probability of
error / task
Walk through inspection 50-1
Checklist inspection 10-2
Non-routine operational error 10-1
(start-up / maintenance)
Non-critical routine task 3x10-3
(misread temp/ press data)
Critical routine task (tank 10-3
isolation)

Availability characteristics in a process plant are (1) Probability of obtaining

nominal output and downtime (2) Probability of obtaining other outputs and downtimes
and (3) Probability of infrequent but very long downtimes.

The objective of system availability analysis is to assess system availability and to

identify critical aspects and then to effect required improvements.

Data on availability of whole subsystems are useful, otherwise it is necessary to

calculate system availability from failure rate and repair time data. Availability of raw
materials and services and availability of other plants which receive outputs like by-
product, electricity, steam etc. are to be considered.

Availability A(t) is a function of time and may be expressed in terms of uptime u(t)
and downtime d(t) as
A (t) = u(t)
u(t) + d(t)

The unavailability v(t) is

V(t) = 1 - A(t) = d(t)

u(t) + d(t)

In addition to methods like density function, Markov models, logic flow diagrams
and throughput capability method, computer flow sheeting methods can also be used to
determine plant availability. Plant availability is affected by storage (main and
intermediate), which introduces additional flexibility and may allow units upstream or
downstream of a failed unit to continue to operate for a time.

For other principles and mathematical details see Reference No. 27 at the end:

5.2 Application of Reliability Engineering :

Reliability engineering was developed during the second world war to solve the
problems of reliability of the missile and vacuum tubes used in electronic equipment by
the US Army.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 91 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Main fields of application of reliability engineering are electronic equipment [see
IS:7354 (6 Parts) and IS:8607 (8 Parts)] and nuclear energy. Methods are developed to
assess the hazards of nuclear reactors and to design instrument trip system to shut
down safely. Its application to process industries was developed at a later stage.

Reliability of mechanical equipment pose less problem. Reliability application is

also concerned with availability, maintenance, failure data, repairs and repair time etc.
With the growth of instrumentation and control branch of engineering, applicability of the
reliability engineering in process plants has become wide and more important. Complex
distributed circuit systems (DCS), trips and alarms, auto control and auto corrections,
locks and interlocks and a variety of process control equipment for inputs, outputs, flow,
temperature/pressure measurement, recording etc. are increasing, day-by-day, the need
of application of reliability engineering.

Work on reliability involves assessment and improvement of the system. The

assessment work may show that the system is fully reliable or less reliable and the ways
and means to improve the reliability. It is the duty of the reliability engineer to identify the
areas where improvement is necessary. Existing level of reliability should be studied for
further improvement Failure rates, effects on people exposed if failure occurs and
weather conditions are factors to be considered.

Quality control improves reliability. Deficiencies in specification, design or

application are causes of unreliability. A good quality equipment, if badly designed, will
remain unreliable.

5.3 Concepts of Critical Equipment and Devices :

Reliability analysis of critical equipment and devices like safety valve, auto control
valve or device, trip device, flow, temperature or pressure control, trip device, alarm,
measurement or recording device, actuators for safe venting, discharge or transfer,
pumps, thermocouples, converter and many electronic subsystems, is of more
significance and needs careful consideration of accurate data of failure rates, availability,
repair time etc. Some concepts of reliability considerations for such critical equipment are
mentioned below in brief :

1. Initially three steps arc required (1) Assessment of system reliability itself (2)
Identification of critical features interrupting reliability and (3) Methods to improve
reliability and selection of a cost effective or safe methods from different
alternatives.
2. For above purpose, first those subsystems (components) should be identified
that affect the overall system reliability. No much effort is necessary to go into
details of a subsystem which does not affect the overall reliability of the system.
3. Sometimes engineering estimates of data may be sufficient but sometimes field
data arc also necessary. The matching of the data to the application is more
important.
4. For example, connections of three pumps with a storage tank, all in parallel or two
in parallel and one as common standby give selective 'reliability. Similarly a
temperature measurement system consisting of three identical thermocouple
systems in parallel is reliable but expensive. Since the thermocouple failure rate is

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 92 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 II times greater than converter and recorder failure rates, a more cost effective
redundant system would have three thermocouples in parallel and only one
converter and recorder. Alternative way is to place a middle value selector.
5. Use of logic flow diagram (Fault Tree Analysis) is a widely used method. Failure
diagram for hazardous occurrences and success diagram for trip system
operation or plant availability are utilised.
6. In event space method, a list of all possible events is made and failure and
success events are sorted out.
7. In path tracing method the paths in a system are traced which constitute success.
These paths are known as tie sets and the system reliability is obtained from the
minimum tie sets.
8. The reversed method is to fit cut sets which break all the paths and thus ensure
failure. System unreliability is obtained from the minimum cut sets.
9. Bayes' theorem is used to select a key component which makes it possible to
decompose the system.
10. Markov models are used to determine repair rates and mean life for complex
systems.
11. Monte Carlo simulation methods, are also useful to determine reliability and/or
availability of complex systems including-critical equipment.
12. The concepts of consequence analysis i.e. effects on exposed and vulnerable
people, property and environment, if any critical equipment or device fails, arc to
be considered and depending on their gravity, the reliability of the equipment
should be selected.

6 MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARD (MAH) CONTROL

With the growth of chemical industry and use of hazardous chemicals, the world
had seen many major accidents during last 50 years but the concept of major accident
hazard (MAH) control came in our country after Bhopal accident in 1984 only. Thereafter
there is a constant rise in bulk storage, hazardous processes and heavy transportation of
dangerous chemicals. This needs to realise and take appropriate safety measures to
identify and prevent the major accident causes and to mitigate their consequences.

6.1 Concept of MAH:

Some definitions are as under:

For definitions of 'major accident' and 'major accident hazard' (MAH) see
definitions in rule 2 (j) and 2 (ja) of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemicals Rules 1989. See part 10.8 of Chapter 28 for further detail.

Major hazard means that hazard which arises because of (1) the hazardous
nature of the substance and (2) its storage quantity equals or exceeds the threshold
quantity prescribed in MSIHC Rules 1989.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 93 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Major hazard is due to isolated storage or industrial activity that has the potential
to cause extensive damage to men, materials or environment within or outside the site
boundary.

The Statutes - Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules

1989, Rule 68J of the Gujarat Factories (Amendment) Rules 1995 and the Chemical
Accidents (EPPR) Rules 1996 have defined the term 'major accident'. See Chapter-28
for these laws

Some reported major industrial accidents arc mentioned below:

Examples of Major Accidents

Year Place Deaths Injuries Chemical involved

1943 Germany 57 439 Butadiene & Butylene
(butene), explosion
1944 US 136 77 Methane, fire
1948 Germany 207 3818 Dimethylether,
explosion
1954 Germany 32 16 Kerosene, explosion
1966 France 18 90 LPG, fire, BLEVE
1973 US 40 - LNG, fire
1974 US 7 152 Propane, explosion
1977 Columbia 30 25 Ammonia, toxic release
1978 Mexico 52 - Methane, fire
1980 Spain 51 60 Propane, explosion
1984 India 2500 25000 Methyle isocynate,
toxic release
1985 Mexico 650 2500 LPG, fire, BLEVE
1986 Russia 31 200 Atomic radiation
1993 Thailand 211 - Toy factory
1993 China 84 - Plastic toy factory

The Bhopal disaster has remained at the top and opened eyes throughout the
world regarding major chemical hazards, their consequences and controls.

All such accidents, differing in the mode of happening and the chemical involved,
have some common features as under :
1. They were uncontrolled events caused by fire, explosion or/and toxic release.
2. They resulted in death or/and injury of a large number of people, inside or/and
outside the plant, or/and

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 94 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 3. They caused evacuation of people of the 4 surrounding area, or/and
4. They caused heavy damage to plant, property and environment.

The storage, process, use and handling of such flammable, explosive or toxic
chemicals pose high potential to cause disasters and are normally referred as major
hazards. Their potential is due to their inherent nature (property) of the chemicals, their
quantity, type of process, way of handling or sudden failure of some part of the plant
including vessel, equipment, fitting, pipe and vehicle.

The main objectives of major hazard control system are:

1. To distinguish between minor and major accident potential and to set priority for
identification and inspection of major hazard works first or more frequently.

2. To define hazardous chemical by defining its fire, explosion and toxicity criteria
and to define their threshold quantities for storage and use to classify the work as
MAH installation.

3. To define and list the hazardous processes to identify the unit as MAH installation.

4. To make, enact and implement the law for MAH chemical works or isolated
storage by providing statutory provisions and requirements.

5. To identify the major hazards, developing and utilising the special techniques like
hazard and risk assessment, HAZOP, FTA, ETA, consequence analysis,
vulnerability analysis, environmental impact assessment etc. as mentioned earlier
and carrying out plant safety inspection by various methods mentioned in Part 2 &
4 of this Chapter.

6. To take all possible preventive measures based on identified major hazards to

prevent the causes of such hazardous events. Training and education may be
incorporated.

7. To foresee the consequences on the workers, public and environment in case if

any possible major accident may occur, and to work out an emergency action plan
to control and mitigate the effects.

Components of a major hazard control system re:

1. Definition and identification of MAH installation based on types of hazards.

2. Information about the installation e.g. safety report, safety manual etc. Information
should be given to workers, public and authorities.
3. Assessment of major hazards, by works management and competent authorities.
Cause, effects, consequences and safety measures must be assessed.
4. Control of the causes of major industrial accidents by detecting causes and
following sound engineering and management practices e.g. good design,
fabrication, installation, operation, maintenance, inspection and use of good safety
equipment and instrumentation.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 95 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 5. Safe operation of major hazard installations by training to workers,
following SOPs and investigating accidents and near misses.

6. Emergency planning i.e. on-site and off-site emergency plans and their
regular-rehearsals.

7. Siting and land-use planning by ensuring safe separation distances.

8. Inspection of MAH units by the plant management and also by the Govt.
authorities at top priority and more frequently.

Causes of major accidents to be studied include component failure, deviations

from normal operating conditions, human and organisational errors, outside accidental
interference, natural forces, mischief and sabotage.

Safe operation of MAH installation should pay attention on

(1) Design, manufacture and assembly of components,

(2) Process control,
(3) Safety systems (sensors, controllers, pressure relief, emergency shutdown,
bunds, water spray, fire detector etc.),
(4) Monitoring of safety-related components and systems,
(5) Inspection, maintenance and repair,
(6) Effects of change,
(7) Training of workers,
(8) Supervision and
(9) Control of contract work.

6.2 Types and Consequences of Major Accident Hazards:

Generally fire, explosion and toxic release are the main types of major hazards
and death, injury, evacuation of people, property loss and environmental damage are the
main types of their consequences.

6.2.1 Fire, Explosion and Toxic Release:

Fire can cause thermal radiation and skin burns. The severity (degree and
percentage) of burns depends on heat intensity, exposure time and type of clothing.

Heat radiation effect  = 1

distance 2

Generally skin withstands a heat energy of 10 kW/m2 for 5 seconds and 30 kW/ 2
for only 0.4 seconds before pain is felt.

Frequency of fires in industry is more than explosions and toxic releases but its
lethal effects are comparatively less. However if the ignition of escaping flammable
vapour is delayed an unconfined vapour cloud may form and it may explode if ignited.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 96 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Types of fire may be a jet fire, pool fire, flash fire and BLEVE i.e. boiling liquid
evaporating vapour explosion. A jet fire occurs from an ignited gas pipe leak, a pool fire
from drained material in a dyke, flash fire occurs if the gas reaches a source of ignition
and rapidly burns back to the source of release and BLEVE occurs when flammable
vapour leaking from any vessel or pipe expands and disperses in air as a cloud and
when this cloud is ignited. Then a fire ball occurs causing enormous heat radiation. A
BLEVE from a 50 tonne propane tank can cause third-degree burns at @200 mts and
blisters at @400 mts.

Explosion is a shockwave that can damage where it hurts. Primary or direct effect
is due to the shockwave of the explosion itself. Those in the direct vicinity may die due to
effects of over-pressure. People can also be thrown away, blown over or knocked down
and buried under collapsed materials. Secondary or indirect effect is the effect of shock-
wave generated by the primary effect. The history of explosions show that the indirect
effects of collapsing buildings, flying or broken glasses and debris cause far more deaths
and injuries.

The effects of shock-wave depend on the type of material, its quantity and the
degree of confinement of the vapour cloud. A pressure of 5 to 10 kPa can cause direct
injury. Death may occur at a higher pressure but demolition of building or breaking of
windows occur at 3 to 10 kPa. The pressure decreases rapidly with distance. As an
example, the explosion of a 50 tonnes propane tank can cause a pressure of 14 kPa at
250 mt and 5 kPa at 500 mt.

Types of explosion are deflagration, detonation, confined and unconfined vapour

cloud explosion and gas and dust explosion.

When burning velocity or flame speed is slow (e.g. I to 10 m/sec), deflagration

takes place in a confined space. It generates low pressure (e.g. 70-80 kPa).

When flame speed is very high (e.g. 2000-3000 m/ ' sec), it causes detonation
and generates high pressure like 200 kPa. Some degree of vapour confinement is
necessary.

Explosion in a confined place like vessel, pipework, drain or building is called

confined explosion and that occurring in the open air is called unconfined explosion.
Confined explosion causes higher pressure and may reach upto hundreds of kPa.

Explosion of a vapour cloud after heavy leakage of a flammable gas is called gas
explosion. Large vapour cloud can cause unconfined vapour cloud explosion (UVCE),
boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE) or fire ball.

Explosion of a solid material in the form of dust, powder or small particles mixed
with air is called dust explosion. Grain, milk powder, flour and coal dust are flammable
dusts. Effect of dust explosion is mostly confined to the workplace.

See Chapter-13 for more details and control measures for Fire and Explosion.

Toxic releases are caused due to leakage and dispersion of toxic chemicals (gas
or vapour) in air. As the workers are working nearby they can be affected first. Therefore

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 97 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 workplace monitoring, air/gas sampling, environmental monitoring etc. as mentioned in
Part 1.6 and 1.7 of Chapter-24 are all important.

Consequences of toxic release are influenced by wind speed, weather condition,

leak rate or mass released, toxicity (LD/LC) and concentration (ppm) at a particular
place, and also by age, sex, genetic background, ethmic grouping, nutrition, vulnerability
(old or tender age, sickness, disease), exposure to other substances with synergistic
effects, pattern of work and time of exposure.

Chlorine, ammonia and other chemicals like methyl isocynate have caused
disasters. Study o toxicity and consequence analysis of such chemical and advance
emergency planning are most essential For example, instantaneous release of 10 tonnes
chlorine may produce 140 ppm at a 2 km downwind distance and 15 ppm at a 5 km
distance in D5 weather Chlorine can be lethal at 1000 ppm or at 100-150 ppm for 5-10
minutes. Its effect is dangerous even at 10-2C ppm for 30 minutes. Such data should be
kept ready by all major hazard works in respect of their highly toxic chemicals with effect
(distance and ppm) counter; of surrounding area.

6.2.2 Types and Effects of Gas Dispersion:

(1) Types of Toxic Spills : Three types : liquids, gases stored as liquids (like Cl2,
NH3) and gases (N2, O2)

No buoyant plume created, unless there is a fire

Liquid Spills : Material which is normally a liquid at atmospheric pressure and

temperature causes a pool to form. viz., benzene, acrylonitrile and vinyl chloride

Rate of evaporation from the pool depends on:

1. Vapour pressure of the liquid.

2. Area of the pool.
3. Heat of evaporation.
4. Air temperature.
5. Ground temperature:
6. Heat transfer of convection & radiation etc.

The viscosity of the liquid determines the rate of growth of the pool, i.e. its area.

Generally the initial rate of emission will be greater per unit area than the
equilibrium rate. The pool is cooled because of evaporation.

Liquid Gas Spills : Material stored in pressured and/or refrigerated containers, -

viz. Cl2, NH3, LPG.

If the release rate is slow enough the material will enter the atmosphere as a gas.
But in a sudden release such as a tank rupture, the dispersion process can be described
in 4 phases.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 98 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 1. Turbulence called 'flash off caused by rapid escape of the liquid or gas. For a 20-
ton NH3, tank rupture, tests suggest @20% vapour & 80% liquid aerosol coming
out as a cloud.
2. The cloud (liquid cylinder or column) starts to slump like a water column starts to
spread out. During slumping, air is entrained slowly. This second stage lasts 30 to
40 seconds for a 20-T NH3, spill.
3. The gas cloud now enters the ground hugging phase. Most of the air entrainment
takes place through the top surface. Depending on ambient temp., gases in the
cloud will reach ambient air density in 3 to 5 minutes after slumping starts from a
20-T NH3, spill.
4. The natural process of atmospheric turbulence takes over, and the cloud diffuses
while travelling along with the wind, like any other material in the atmosphere.

Gas Spills : Such spill results in the formation of air-gas mixture at a temp. some
what below ambient temp.

(2) Meaning of Dispersion and Effects:

Dispersion and diffusion means spreading and dilution of gas in air. When
smokes come out from a chimney, vaporisation takes place from boiling or evaporating
liquid, any material leaks or spills due to leakage or handling and discharges gas or
vapour in atmosphere, safety valve or vent opens and liberates gases, any accidental
failure of any vessel or equipment occurs giving sudden rise of vapours or gases or due
to any fire or explosion when gases come out, dispersion phenomenon takes place.
Because of discharge pressure, lighter vapour density, buoyancy, kinetic energy,
temperature etc. the escaping material travels in air and because of turbulence in air and
wind velocity the mixing (air-entrainment), diffusion and spreading in wind direction take
place. Weather conditions and topographical factors also affect. Dispersion may be of a
flammable gas-air mixture or non-flammable (inert, toxic or corrosive) gas-air mixture. It
may be a continuous emission or instantaneous puff or plume release.

The dispersion is of more concern when it is of very toxic gas or highly flammable
vapour, because it can give direct rise to toxic effect, fire or explosion.

Toxic release in bulk quantity and for a long duration (e.g. Bhopal incident) affects
public at large. To assess the consequence, fatalities, injuries and property damage and
for the purpose of evacuation to save life, scientific calculations become necessary which
include probit equation and analysis and -a variety of gas dispersion modelling. The
computer models can give quick results.

In case of toxic dispersion, normally three zones are considered. The inner most
or zone-1 contains the highest concentrations of leaking gas wherein maximum
fatality/injury can be predicted. No entry or no rescue operation may be possible there.
Then in intermediate or zone-2, evacuation becomes most necessary and must be
carried out at the earliest possible otherwise great fatalities or/and injuries may result.
This is the target area of emergency planning and rescue activities. But in doing so, use
of necessary personal protective equipment and vehicles is to be done very carefully.
The outermost or zone-3 is a safe zone but it can be affected also if dispersion
aggravates or lasts for a longer time. Therefore alert and warning action is required in

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 99 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 this zone. People must be advised to go away by their own arrangement and should be
helped if necessary.

A flammable gas in explosive range with air can cause fire or explosion and may
be consumed by combustion. But a large vapour cloud is capable of producing an
unconfined vapour cloud explosion. Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE)
and/or fireball are also possible.

A dispersing gas gets diluted in air during dispersion, diffusion and travelling and
its 'density becomes close to air density. Therefore the majority of dispersions are known
as 'air-density or neutral density dispersion'. Only some dense gas dispersion needs
special calculations and treatment.

A gas released from any point may be ignited if flammable and may cause,
BLEVE, flare or pool fire and cause heat radiation damage. Fire may generate toxic
products and adds toxic effects too. If immediate ignition is not possible, the gas may
vaporise, disperse and may cause delayed ignition which by pressure wave may cause
flash fire or explosion and ultimate damage. If the released gas is not flammable but toxic
it causes toxic effects and if it is inert like nitrogen, causes oxygen deficiency in a
confined space. It the gas is in no way injurious, no adverse effect is possible.

Types of releasing gas may be of the following

1. Liquefied pressurised gas (e.g. LPG).

2. Flammable gas (e.g. fuel gas, H2).
3. Toxic gas (e.g. Cl2 NM3, CO).
4. Low boiling liquid (e.g. petrol/benzene).
5. Liquid with toxic combustion products.

Their hazardous effects may be of the following types.

1. Heat radiation from a jet, pool fire, a flash fire or BLEVE.

2. Explosion overpressure.
3. Toxic effects from toxic materials or toxic combustion products.

The following effects consequential to the accidental release of hazardous

materials are of much interest:

1. Atmospheric dispersion as a function of source strength, gas density, weather

conditions and topographical situation of the surrounding area.
2. Intensity of heat radiation (in kW/m2) due to a fire or a BLEVE as a function of the
distance of me source.
3. Energy of vapour cloud explosions (in N/m2) a.' a function of the distance of the
exploding cloud
4. Concentration of the evaporated material which may be explosive or toxic.
5. Concentration of the toxic products-of combustion produced by a fire and
6. Duration that these respective effects may prevail.

Some damaging effects due to heat radiation, blast overpressure or toxic

concentration are summarised below:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 100 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 (A) Radiation Effects:

Exposure Duration Radiation energy required for 1% lethality

Without protection With protection (e.g.
clothing)
(kW/m2)
10 Sec 16.7 21.2
30 Sec 7.3 9.3

(B) Blast wave Effects due to Overpressures :

Type of damage Peak overpressure

Total destruction 0.830 E + 5 Pa
Heavy damage 0.350 E + 5 Pa
Moderate damage 0.170 E + 5 Pa
Minor damage 0.035 E + 5 Pa

Approximately 0.1 bar peak over pressure may cause 1% fatality or serious
damage to 10% of the housing/structures.

(C) Toxic Effects (fatalities) :

Chemical LC30 in mg/m3 (lethal concentration at 30 min

exposure)
1% Fatality 50% Fatality
NH3 1871 5999
CO 787 7949
Cl2 364 1005
EO 432 4443
HCl 391 3950

Dispersion can be studied in four types of areas (1) Leaks and spillage (2)
Dispersion from vents and jets (3) Dispersion of heavy gases and (4) Dispersion by fluid
curtain. Simultaneous study of meteorological and topographical conditions becomes a
part of the subject of dispersion and modelling.

6.2.3 Probit Analysis

Probit Analysis is a method (calculation) tc assess probability of injury or damage

due to serious or lethal dispersion. It is a mathematical expression in the form of a probit
function as under :

V = K1+K2 In C (In=loge)

where V is a measure of the vulnerable resource (human or property) which gets

injury or damage, and variable C is a measure of the intensity of the causative factor
which harms the resource.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 101 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 The logarithmic term (InC) i.e. log C in above equation arises because in any
population, some people can tolerate high intensity of harmful causative factor than
others. The distribution is slanting (oblique).

The constants K1 and K2 can be calculated from the relationship between the
intensity of causative factor and the degree of harmful response. In case of fire, K1 and
K2 depend upon effective time duration(s), radiation intensity (W/m2), duration of pool
burning(s) and radiation intensity from pool burning (W/m2). In case of explosion, they
depend on peak over-pressure (N/m2) and impulse (Ns/m2) and in case of toxic release,
they depend on concentration (ppm) and time interval (min).

In case of fire, burn deaths may take place due to flash fire or pool burning. In
case of explosion, deaths or injuries may take place due to impact, card rum rupture,
flying fragments, structured damage, glass breakage and lung haemorrhage. In case of
toxic release, deaths or injuries may take place due to toxicity and concentration of the
gas.

In case of fire, deaths or injuries may happen due to thermal radiation. This effect
is time-dependent and is given by following probit equation :

P = K1 + K2 In Cnt = K1 + K2 log, Cnt

where P is the probit i.e. a measure of probability of people that may be affected, K1 and
K2 constants, C a causative factor (here radiation intensity in kW/m2), n = 4/3 and t =
time in seconds.

The values for K1 and K2 are mostly derived from experiments with animals.
However, human toxicity factors have been derived from past accidents. Inhalation
experiments with rats seem to be best applicable to predict damage to people from acute
intoxication.

In above probit equation following probit constants are relevant for the following
chemicals :

Chemical Probit Constants

K1 K2 N
NH3 -15.8 1 2.0
CO -7.4 1 1.0
Cl2 -14.3 1 2.3
EO -6.8 1 1.0
HCl -6.7 1 1.0

Examples:

(1) Let us consider C = 21.2 kW/m2 radiation energy for I % lethality with exposure
time 10 seconds, then for Ethylene oxide (E.O),

P = K1+K2 In Cnt
= - 6.8+1 In (21.21 x 10)
= - 6.8+1 In (21.2 x 10)

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 102 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 = - 6.8+In 212
= - 6.8 + 5.35
= -1.45

(2) Let us consider C = 1871 mg/m3 concentration for ammonia at its LC30 then for 20
seconds exposure,

P = K1+K2 In Cnt
= - 15.8 + 1 In (18712 x 20)
= - 15.8 + In (3500641 x 20)
= - 15.8 + In 70012820
= - 15.8 + 18.06
= + 2.26

(3) Let us consider C = 25 mg/m3 concentration for chlorine, then for 5 minutes (5 x
60 = 300 seconds) exposure,

P = K1+K2 In Cnt
= - 14.3 + 1 In (252.3 x 300)
= - 14.3 + In (1641.57 x 300)
= - 14.3 + In 492473.96
= - 14.3 + 13.10 = -1.2

The profit P is a random variable with a mean 5 mid variance 1. The probability
(range 0 - 10) is generally replaced in probit work by a percentage (range 0 - 100) from
the following table :

Probit % (approx)
2.5 0
2.67 1
3 3
3.5 8
4 15
4.5 30
5 50
5.5 70
6 85
7 98
7.5 100

Thus probit P = 2.67 represents 1% of the exposed 'population, P = 5 represents

50% of the exposed population, P = 5.5 represents 70%, P = 7 represents 98% and P =
7.5 represents 100% of the exposed population or percentage damage or degree of
injury that can result from the exposure.

In previous example (2) of ammonia release, P = 2.26 indicates that

approximately 0.9% of the population may be affected.

A common rough estimate for the hazard range for large pool fires is about 2 pool
diameters, and for large drifting vapour clouds 1.5 cloud diameters.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 103 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Thus a probit equation generally gives the relation between the causative factor
and the probability of death.

However it should be borne in mind that probit equations are just approximation 'in
an impact model of hazard assessment and there may be a vast difference in actual
result.

See also Part 4.12 for use of Probit Equation.

6.3 Criteria (Identification) for the Plant to be under MAH unit :

Schedules 1, 2 and 3 of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous

Chemicals Rules 1989 (and also u/r 68J of the Gujarat Factories Rules) prescribe criteria
for toxic, flammable and explosive chemicals, list out the hazardous chemicals and give
their threshold quantity for application of certain rules. These storage quantities and
processes listed in Schedule-4 are, now, legal criteria to identify the plant to be under
MAH unit. For details the Schedules should be referred.

Chemical Quantity (t) Chemical Quantity (t)

HCl gas 25 Chlorine 10
NOx 50 Formaldehyde 5
SO3 15
Acetylene 5 HCN, HF, H2S 5
Acrylonitrile 20 SO2 2
Ammonia 50 EO 5
Bromine 40 Hydrogen 2
CS2 20 Phenol 10

Thus the plants keeping quantities equal to or more than the threshold quantities
mentioned in the Schedule-3 (above table is a part thereof) or the isolated storage (other
than a factory) storing quantities equal to or more than the threshold quantity mentioned
in the Schedule-2 (e.g. Ammonia 60t. Flammable gases 501, Highly flammable liquids
10000t, Bromine 50t) are to be identified as major hazard installations (factories or
isolated storage).

As the Oleum is not named in Sch. 2 or 3, the quantity of S0„ (15t) is to be

considered for oleum.

For the purpose of determining the threshold quantity of a hazardous chemical in

a factory or isolated storage, the aggregate of all installations within a distance of 500 mt
of each other and belonging to the same factory/isolated storage (or the same occupier)
shall be considered as mentioned in Sch. 2 & 3.

Based on above discussion, the MAH units are mostly those associated with

1. Storage/processes of Cl, NH„ & LPG.

2. Other chemical/petrochemical plants and refineries.
3. Pesticide factories.
4. Explosive factories and

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 104 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 5. Large fertiliser plants.

6.4 Role of the Management

Under the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
the general responsibilities of management of any MAH unit are to

1. Provide information to the authorities, of criteria, quantities and processes of

hazardous substances to identify the unit as an MAH unit. See Rule 4 & 7, and
Sch. 7 &: 9 for notification of site and MSDS.
2. Carry out Safety Audit and Risk Assessment and collection, development and
dissemination of information as mentioned-in Rule 17 and Sch. 8 to 12. Submit
Safety Report and Safety Audit Report.
3. Report to the authorities the results of the hazard/ risk assessment in the
prescribed formats e.g. Safety Report in Sch. 8, MSDS in Sch. 9, Information of
imported chemicals in Sch. 10, Onsite Emergency Plan in Sch. II and information
required by the authority to prepare Off-site Emergency Plan in Sch. 12. This plan
is to be rehearsed once in a year.
4. Set up an emergency plan i.e. on-site and off-site emergency plan based on the
guidelines from Factory Inspectorate. See Sch. II & 12.

5. Take all necessary safety measures to prevent major accidents and to limit their
consequences to persons and environment, provide to the workers with
information, training and equipment including antidotes necessary to ensure their
safety as mentioned in Rule 4. This is the main responsibility to operate and
maintain the plant safety and to mitigate consequences .of the accident. See Fig.
19.1 for Major Hazard Protection Equipment & Stickers. They should be used and
displayed.
6. Update the information following changes in the threshold quantity, other hazards
and safety report as mentioned in Rule 8 and 11.
7. Give information to the public liable to be affected by a major accident as
mentioned in Rule 15.
8. Notify within 48 hours, to the concerned authority mentioned in Sch. 5, a report of
major accident occurred on site in the Sch. 6. See Rule 5.
9. Inform the concerned authority (mentioned in Sch. 5), before 30 days, the
particulars mentioned in Rule 18, regarding import of hazardous chemicals. The
records of imported hazardous chemicals shall be maintained in Sch. 10

For various methods of hazard/risk assessment see Part 4.3 of this chapter.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 105 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 6.5 Role of the Authorities :

In controlling major industrial hazards and accidents, the Government authorities

have an important role to play as Under

1. To enact, implement and amend the law on major hazard control.

2. To require statutory information from industries to identify them as MAH
installations (sites & isolated storage), in the form of Safety Report, onsite
emergency plan and other relevant information.
3. To compile the data of MAH units, nation-wide, statewise and districtwise with the
lists of MAH factories, isolated storages, hazardous chemicals involved in such
units, their quantities, types and consequences of hazards and areawise
contingency (emergency action) plans.
4. To publish and circulate useful information for the MAH management, their
workers and the general public. This should include the role of different agencies
and the public and information on medical help and antidotes.
5. To set up the Crisis Alert System as provided by rule 4 of the Chemical Accidents
(Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules 1996. See Part 10.10
of Chapter-28.
6. To establish and maintain uptodate an inventory of MAH units based on the
Safety Reports received and location of the units in relation to populated areas.
7. To inspect the MAH units based on safety reports and on-site emergency plans
received to check the correctness and effectiveness of the safety arrangements
provided. To give direction for further action if necessary.
8. To draw up an off-site emergency plan (by local authorities) after consultation with
the MAH units and agencies like fire brigade, police, hospitals and ambulance,
transport, telephone etc. Budget and arrangements to train participants and public
and carry out rehearsals should be made.
9. To make and implement siting policy to separate MAH units from other units and
population.
10. To acquire for self, expertise by establishing a group of experts, to prepare
checklists to evaluate plant safety measures and to develop inspection systems
and programmes for the use of Factory Inspectorates.

6.6 Role of the Workers:

The workers of the MAH units have to play an important role as under :

1. They should understand the concept of major hazard control and its importance to
operate the plant safely.
2. They should give full co-operation in undergoing training and implement it to run
and maintain the plant with safety and responsibility so as to avoid any hazard or
accident to self and others.
3. They should watch their workplaces for safety, use necessary equipment and
follow safe working procedures for their health and safety.
4. They should know and play their role in the onsite emergency plan of their
company.
5. They should make proper use of safeguards and safety devices meant for them
and co-workers.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 106 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 6. They should not displace, alter, remove or interfere with safety guards, devices
and appliances.
7. They should not temper with process controls, valves, piping, pumps, mechanical,
electrical and other machines and equipment so as to cause any deviation or
hazard.
8. They should not do any unauthorised act.
9. They should report immediately imminent dangers, defects or any unsafe
condition to their supervisors, safety committee members or the concerned safety
officers.
10. The trade unions can also contribute by educating and training their members on
above matters. They should give active co-operation to the management in
implementing major hazard control system.
11. The workers or their unions should prepare and circulate training and information
materials addressed to workers to promote safety awareness and their duties
toward health & safety.

6.7 Role of the Public:

The public has to play their role as under :

1. They should know their role at the time of off-site emergency affecting them. They
should attend meeting for this purpose with the authorities and the factory
management and to clarify their doubts and duties.
2. At the time of off-site emergency they should follow the instructions for them
regarding their staying in houses or be prepared for evacuation. They should not
make panic or frighten others by misguiding or spreading false information.
3. The injured people should take immediate medical help or antidotes suggested
by the doctors.
4. The public should give full co-operation in emergency activities entrusted to them
by the authorities e.g. traffic control, helping sick and handicapped persons etc.
5. They should not cause obstructions, hindrances or difficulties at the time of
emergencies. They should give correct information to the authorities.

6.8 Safety Report, Safety Audit Report and Risk Assessment Report.

6.8.1 Safety Report:

Statutory information required in a safety report is given in Sch. 8, Rule 10(1) of

the MSIHC Rules, 1989
Before 90 days of any modification (having material effect), an updated Safety
Report shall be submitted to the authority.

6.8.2 Safety Audit Report:

Safety audit with the help of an expert not associated with such industrial activities
is to be submitted every year within 30 days after the completion of such audit.

Like financial audit, 'Safety Audit' has also been popularized and has come into
practice since last ten years. After statutory requirements (GFR 1995 & MSIHC Rules
2000), audit frequency has been increased. Looking to this need, BIS also published an
Indian Standard - IS:14489 in 1998 as standard guideline for practice on occupational

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 107 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 safety and health audit. This IS does not include rating (points) system like British
Standard. Therefore, it gives qualitative analysis and not the quantitative.

1. Need of Safety Audit:

Safety audit is mainly required for two reasons:

(A) Safety Requirement: It is utmost necessary for the purpose of maintaining safety
(accident free atmosphere) in industry that all systems of work should be
thoroughly checked from safety point of view at regular interval and deficiencies
identified should be removed by due compliance of safety recommendations. -A
pro-determined checklist is useful for a fixed class of industry (e.g. chemical
industry) but, however, audit points are variable and should be best suitable to the
type of industry to be audited.

(B) Legal Requirement: Rule 12-C & 68-0 of the Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 and
Rule 10 & 12 of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals
Rules 1989 need submission of safety audit reports to the concerned authorities
within prescribed time.

2. Audit Procedure:

Lead auditor along with his team may adopt following procedure:

1. Constitution of Audit team (at least two members).

2. Constitution of Auditee representatives.
3. Recording identification and brief history of the auditee industry.
4. Deciding audit goals, objectives and scope.
5. Drawing audit plan with time schedule.
6. Holding opening meeting with the auditee.
7. Study of process and applicability of safely laws and standards.
8. Taking plant round and noting observations.
9. Examining records and documents.
10. Filling checklists of audit points (e.g. filling of Annexure A, B & C of IS-.14489).
Element wise (Annex. A) files will be useful.
11. Holding of closing meeting and discussing findings.
12. Preparation and submission of Audit Report (with Executive summary in the
beginning).
13. Report distribution for compliance.
14. Compliance audit if required by the audittee or client.
15. Visit for compliance audit and its report.

3. Audit Frequency:

Normally an external or third party safety audit should be conducted once in two
years and an internal audit may be organized once in every year.

4. Audit Goals:

Following goals can be decided while starting the audit:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 108 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 1. Assessment of Auditee's OS&H system against existing standards and
identification of areas for improvement.
2. Determination of conformity of the implemented OS&H system with
specified requirements and identification of areas for improvement.
3. Checking of statutory requirements.

5. Audit Objectives:

Following objectives can be decided for the audit:

1. To carry out a systematic, critical appraisal of all potential hazards involving

personnel, plant, services, methods etc.
2. To ensure that company's OS&H system and safety policies, objectives
etc. satisfy the legal requirements.

6. Audit Scope:

The scope and depth of the audit should be decided as per auditee's or client's
requirements. This should include:

1. Which plants or areas to be audited.

2. Which OS&H system elements to be audited.
3. With what legal and other safety standards, rules or documents, the
auditee's OS&H systems should be compared. Benchmarking if any,
should be considered.
4. List of resources and evidences including workers and experts that will be
available for audit.
5. Within what time frame audit should be completed and with what other
terms and conditions. A written agreement, if necessary, should be
prepared and signed.

7. Audit Plan:

Audit plan should be finalized after consultation with auditee and should be
informed to auditors and auditee in the opening meeting. This plan should include:

1. Audit goals, objectives and scope as stated earlier.

2. Names of audit team members and management's representatives.
3. List of documents to be checked.
4. List of legal and other standards to be followed during audit.
5. Auditee's OS&H policy and its other intentions.
6. Time schedule of audit visits of each plant or location.
7. Schedule of meetings to be held with auditee for the audit purpose.
8. Expected date of issue of the audit report.
9. Procedure or methodology of compliance of the report, and
10. Whether compliance audit will be required by the auditee and if yes, it's
probable time schedule, and method of communication.

8. Checking of Records & Registers:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 109 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Statutory forms, records and registers under the Factories Act & Rules and other
safety laws should be checked for relevant information and statutory compliance. This
may include (for Gujarat):

1. Form No. 1 A (GFR) i.e. structural stability certificate.

2. Form No. 9, 10, II (GFR) for hoists, lifts, lifting machines and pressure
vessels.
3. Reports of Competent Persons regarding examination of dangerous
machines, safety devices, dangerous operations etc.
4. Form No. 29 (GFR) i.e. Accidents Register.
5. Form No. 20, 32 & 33 (GFR) i.e. Health records for workers.
6. Form No. 37 (GFR) i.e. work place monitoring record.
7. Industrial Hygienist's report regarding measured values of gas, vapour,
noise, WBGT (Heat stress parameters), ventilation system etc.
8. Statutory cautionary notices, safety policy and minutes of safety committee
meetings.
9. Certificate of safety, testing of pressure vessels and safety valves etc.
under SMPV (U) Rules 1981 and Petroleum Act & Rules, if applicable.
10. Forms under Gas Cylinder Rules if applicable.
11. Testing certificates of effluents, air pollutants, solid wastes, ambient air
quality etc. under GPCB norms.
12. Licenses under applicable Acts and Rules and their validity.
13. Public liability insurance policy, if required.
14. Records of storage quantities of hazardous chemicals for verification of
threshold quantities and identification as MAH installation.
15. Records and Registers (29) as suggested by Annexure - B of IS:14489.
16. Other relevant records and registers as considered necessary by the
auditors.

9. Checking Applicability of Safety Laws:

From above records, registers, licenses etc. and physical verification of storage
quantities, number of gas cylinders etc., act-wise applicability and validity of licenses etc.
should be checked, discussed and narrated in audit report.

10. Points of Plant-visits:

All safety points (audit points) seen during plant visits should be recorded plant-
wise or location-wise so that plant-wise implementation will become easy. This should be
separately reported in the audit report.

Such points are to be seen as requirement of law and other standards. Their
mention will include reference of relevant section, rule, standard (attributes) etc.

11. Audit Observations and Recommendations:

Safety audit questionnaire sheet should be prepared in the following form:

Sr. Items to be Observation Recommendations

No. observed seen/ found (Non i.e. safety

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 110 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 conformities) suggestions.
1 2 3 4

Observations should be clear and specific. Recommendations should also be

clear, specific, easy to understand, brief and with reference of safety standard or reason
as per auditor's opinion.

Annexure - C of IS:14489 is a good guideline for safety audit which can be used
for a chemical industry also. It should be utilized as a whole or with necessary
modification deem fit by the auditors. Points may be decreased or increased depending
on the size, status, contents, materials, processes, procedures and systems of works
and experience of the auditors.

As Annexure - C includes many items of safety •inspection and audit including

safety policy, organization, training, general working conditions, hazard identification and
control, technical aspect, work permit system, PPE, fire protection, emergency
preparedness, hazard area classification, static electricity, vessels and equipments,
storage safety, communication system, transport, pipelines etc., they are not separately
discussed in this article. There is no end to such items. Only experience can specify and
classify them. Therefore, audit by duly qualified and experienced auditors is more useful.

12. Closing Meeting:

After recommendations are ready, prior to preparing the audit report, auditors
should hold a closing meeting with auditee's senior managers to explain them the result
of the audit. Audit observations and recommendations should be explained to them.
Power point presentation is more effective. Querries of the audience should be replied
forthwith. Reasons (legal requirements, standards etc.) of recommendations should be
properly explained. It should also be clarified that the purpose of this effort (audit) is not
to criticize but to try to find out the methods of further improvement.

13. Report Preparation & Submission:

Audit report should be well documented by the auditors, audit certificate should be
signed (with date) by the lead auditor and enclosed with the audit report and it should be
sent to the auditee or client as soon as possible. If it cannot be sent within agreed time
limit, reasons of delay should be communicated. The auditee should send
acknowledgement of receipt of audit report to the auditors and client and final report of
compliance when it is over.

14. Report Distribution and Compliance:

Auditee will decide internal distribution (relevant copies) of audit report to the
concerned departments or managers with its instructions of compliance within specified
time limits assigned to each of them. The auditee will collect the reports of compliance,
will verify and arrange in chronological order against each point of recommendation.

15. Report Retention:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 111 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Auditee should retain the audit report alongwith its compliance report and should
show them to the authorities on demand. Such retained audit reports will show the
history of safety improvement of the auditee. Minimum time of retention is till full
compliance of the audit report. Cost benefit ratio can also be determined based on this.

If compliance or follow-up audit is required by the same auditors, auditee or client

should inform them accordingly.

6.8.3 Risk Assessment Report:

As explained in part 4.3 risk assessment should be carried out by using risk
ranking table (matrix) and computer models for damage distances due to toxic gas
release or fire or explosion phenomena. First hazards of main industrial activities and
sub activities are identified. Then ranking points are assigned to them. Quantitative
assessment is derived fgr probability and severity part of the risk. Than using the formula
risk = probability x severity, risk levels are calculated and tabulated.

A format of risk assessment report should contain following items:

Executive Summary
1. Legal Requirement of Risk Assessment
2. Words and Concepts Defined.
3. Hazards Identification
3.1 Identification of the Factory
3.2 Brief History of the Factory
3.3 List of Products
3.4 List of Raw Materials.
3.5 Process in brief
4. Hazards Analysis
Listing of hazards activity wise and their classification
5. Hazards & Risk Assessment
5.1 Risks as per Work Environment Report (Form No. 37, GFR).
5.2 Risks as per Health Records of the Workers (Rule 68 R&T, GFR).
5.3 Risks due to Toxic Chemicals (as per Gas Dispersion Calculations)
5.4 Risks due to Flammable Materials
5.5 Assessment of Residual Risks-material wise or activity wise and using
appropritate metrix with formula
Risk = Probability x Severity.
Tables of ranking points
6. Risk Control
6.1 Control Measures Provided
6.1.1. Risk Reduction Measures
6.1.2. Risk Prevention Measures
6.1.3. Information Management
6.2 Control Measures Suggested.

7. Risk Management
7.1 Functions of SHE & Fire Departments to identify, assess, address, control
and review the risks
7.1.1 Functions of the SHE Department

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 112 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 7.1.2 Fire Fighting Facilities.
7.2 Risk Financing (Transfer by Insurance)
7.2.1. Insurance Policies for Workmen's Compensation
7.2.2. Insurance Policies for Property Protection.
7.2.3. Public Liability Insurance.
7.3 Risk Administration
7.3.1. Long-term Programme
7.3.2. Day-to-Day Operations

7 ON-SITE AND OFF-SITE EMERGENCY PLANS

7.1 Need & Types of Emergency Plans

Minor accidents do not cause much damage. But major accidents due to
emergency or disaster cause extensive damage to person, property and environment.
Many accidents like Bhopal tragedy have occurred at many places in the world causing
heavy loss of life and property. Some cases are discussed in Chapter 30. Emergency
situation arises all of a sudden and contains high potential to cause havoc. Therefore
such situations (chances) and risks should be thought in advance and it should be
planned beforehand to tackle them immediately and to control them within the shortest
possible time. Reasons of emergency planning are as follows:

Reasons of Emergency Planning :

1. Experience of years have shown that accident, dangerous occurrence, emergency

or disaster occurs at any time and we lose life, property, production etc. if not fully
prepared to control over and minimise it. Therefore it is most advisable to foresee
such situation and to plan for total loss prevention and control.
2. There is no alternative to emergency planning. Only the best planning, periodical
drill or rehearsal, co-ordinated and sincere efforts by all authorities at all times and
speedy follow up as per planning will help to achieve the goal.
3. Planning reduces the thinking time for necessary steps at the time of accident .
4. It is easy to set in motion all machinery already planned and trained in advance to
meet the situation.
5. Prevention is better than cure. Planning intends first prevention and if it fails,
subsequent control to cure the situation. Emergency needs such planning. .
6. Planning helps to contain the incident and to minimise the loss to the national
wealth including human lives, resources, business and administration.
7. It is our moral, social and legal obligation to serve the society for safety, health
and welfare. Emergency preparedness or planning is the best step in this
direction.
8. Many companies, organisations and nations have succeeded in above goal by
planning and follow up only. This suggests the need for planning.

Types of Emergency:

See Part 3 of Chapter-2 for definitions.

There are three basic types of emergencies : (1) Operating (2) Fire and .(3)
Disaster.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 113 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 1. Operating Emergency : It is an emergency, that can be locally handled by unit
personnel alone without help e.g. small fire, air failure, power failure, cooling water
failure, steam failure, gas leaks etc'. .
2. Fire Emergency : It is a fire which is beyond the control of operating staff or the
unit. It requires the assistance of the other fire fighting force.
3. Disaster , A disaster is a catastrophic situation in which the day-to-day patterns of
life are, in many instances, suddenly disrupted and people are plunged into
helplessness and suffering and as a result need protection, clothing,, shelter,
medical and social care and other, necessities of life, such as -

(1) Disasters resulting from natural phenomena like earthquakes, volcanic

eruptions, storm, surges," cyclones, tropical storms, floods, landslides,
forest fires and massive insect infestation. Also in this group, violent
draught which will cause a creeping disaster leading to famine, disease and
death must be included. ..-
(2) Second group includes disastrous events occasioned by man, or by man's
impact upon the environment, such as armed conflict, industrial accidents,
factory fires, explosions and escape of toxic gases or chemical substances,
river, water, "land and air pollution, mining or other structural collapses; air,
sea, rail and road transport accidents, aircraft crashes, collisions of
vehicles carrying inflammable liquids, oil spills at sea, and dam failures.

Advance emergency planning and proper training of every employee in the

'emergency function is very essential to make emergency control measures more
effective. It is not possible to completely eliminate emergency situations, but it is
definitely possible to control them. An emergency, if uncontrolled may cause a disaster
which in turn may create a catastrophe.

There are two types of emergency control plans (1) On site emergency plan and
(2) Off site emergency or disaster plan. The first is to be prepared by an industrial unit
under the guidance of the government and local authority and the second one is to be
prepared by the local authority or the government itself with the help of the government
machinery and resources including the concerned industrial units also.

They arc explained below as a guide line. Necessary alteration, addition etc. must be
made according to tile specific types of hazards, situations and control measures
required.

7.2 Statutory Provisions :

Section 41B(4) of the Factories Act, 1948 requires an on site emergency plan and
detailed disaster control measures for the safety of the factory workers and the general
public living in the vicinity of the factory. The occupier is required to inform the workers
and the public about the safety measures to be taken in the event of an accident.

Rule 13, 14 and Schedule II & 12 of the Manufacture; Storage and Import of
Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989 and Rule 5,7,9 and 10 of the Chemical ' Accidents
(Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules, 1996 also provide for on-
site and off-site emergency plans., as under:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 114 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 7.3 On-site Emergency Plan :

The plan should include the following information:

7.3.1 The Purpose and Policy :

The purposes of this plan are :

1. To protect persons and properly of your factory in case of all kinds of accidents,
dangerous occurrences (Rule 103, Gujarat Factories Rules), emergencies and
disasters happening in or affecting your plant at any time.

2. To inform people and surroundings about above happening if it is likely to

adversely affect them.

3. To inform authorities including helping agencies (doctors, hospitals, fire, police,

transport etc.) in advance, and also at the lime of actual happening.

4. To identify, assess, foresee and work out various kinds of possible hazards, their
places, potential and damaging capacity and area in case of above happenings.
Review, revise, redesign, replace or reconstruct the process, plant, vessels and
control measures if so assessed.

5. To work out a plan with detailed instructions to cope up with above happenings,
based on your personnel, equipment and records. Necessary requirements shall
be added if not already available. Levels of hazardous substances shall be
minimised to the extent possible. Establish machinery for rescue and recuperation
operations, total loss control and prevention of harms and recurrence of above
happenings. Ensure that absolute safety and security is achieved within the
shortest time. Pv~reventior22 and regular maintenance will be useful in this
regard..

Each factory shall have to prepare its own plan depending upon own hazards,
probable emergencies, personnel, equipment, resources, nearby outside agencies and
new requirements if any. Some model guidelines are given below. You may add more
points or rearrange as per your own requirement and work out the details.

7.3.2 Site Plan of the Factory and Surrounding :

Prepare a plan of the factory premises and surroundings showing therein the
areas of various hazards such' as fire, explosion, toxic release etc., and also location of
assembly points, fire station oi equipment room, personal protective equipment room,
telephone room, first aid or ambulance room, emergency control room, main gate,
emergency gates, normal wind direction, north direction, outside fire station, police
station, hospital and other services. Mention their distances also.

7.3.3 Types of Overall Emergencies :

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 115 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Describe types of emergency and how it can arise in or near your plant. Fire
(small and big), explosion, toxic exposure, strike, storm, flood and other hazardous
possible situations shall be described with reasons. Sources of hazard from outside or
neighbouring plants, tanks, structure etc. shall be mentioned. Effect of prevailing wind
and population density likely to be affected shall also be considered. Following table shall
be drawn up.

Sr. Type of May arise At (Place) People

No. emergency due to and area
including likely to
disaster be
(Major class) affected
1 2 3 4 5

7.3.4 Assessment of In-plant Hazards :

Give details of assessment of in-plant hazards and control measures provided in

the following tables:

A. Storage Hazards and Controls :

Sr Name of Type of Plac Control Incharg

. the hazards e measur e
N hazardo possible es person,
o. us (fire, provide phones
content explosio d &
and n, toxic addres
quantity exposur s
e etc.)
1 2 3 4 5 6

B. Process Hazards and Controls :

S Name Unsafe Type Pl Contr Inch

r of the param of ac ol arge
. hazar eters haza e meas pers
N dous (Press rds ures on,
o proce ure, poss provi phon
. ss, temp., ible ded es &
operat flow, (Run addr
ion or conten away ess
situati t, react
on hazard ion,
ous burst
situati ing,
on gass
etc.) ing
etc.)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 116 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 C. Other Hazards and Controls :

S Nam Reas Type Pl Contr Incha

r. e of ons of ac ol rge
N the of hazar e meas pers
o haza the ds ures on,
. rds hazar (effec provid phon
ds ts ed es &
possi addr
ble) ess
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

D. Inspections, Maintenance and Monitoring :

S Name Thei Perio Inch Last Date
r of the r d of arge date of
. FEE, locat Inspe pers of inspe
N PPE, ions ction on, inspe ction
o scrub pho ction and
. ber, nes Rema
safet & rk
y addr
devic ess
es
and
other
equip
ment
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
7.3.5 Emergency Organisations and Functions :

Prescribe the constitutions and duties of : (1) Alarm raiser (2) incident (spot)
controller. (3) Site main controller (Chief Co-ordinator). (4) Emergency team including
engineers and experts. (5) Fire fighting team. (6) Gas control team. (7) First-Aid and
Health care team. (8) Ambulance and evacuation team (9) Safety officer and (10)
Security officer.

Fix names and designations of Head, Deputy and members (as per need) of each
of above team (to be informed in chronological order) in all shifts of working days and on
holidays. Their names, day and shift shall be displayed on the main notice board and
also with the main telephone operator and chief executive on duty. In a small factory
employing less workers these duties shall be well distributed. In a small factory only
requisite teams may be formed and some duties may be combined.

Following table shall be drawn up :

S Nam Name Their Duties Equipm

r. e of s of telephone and ent to
N the Head, numbers functi be
o team Deput ons of carried
. (Fire, y and the by the

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 117 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 gas, memb team team
Medi ers and
cal with their
etc.) addre locatio
ss n
O Re
ff si.
.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Members of above teams shall be available during all shifts and holidays.
Protective equipment, lifting gears, fire control points etc.; shall be sufficient in numbers
and their locations shall be well informed. Necessary vehicles shall be kept ready to shift
persons 'in case of emergency.

Main functions of the fire and toxic gas control teams are as follows:

In Case of Fire:

1. All persons are responsible to report section incharge about details of any incident
of fire (slight, minor, major etc.) and shall act by all available means to
prevent/control it till it is possible. The section-in-charge will work as incident
controller.
2. The incident controller shall (a) Order the 'Fire Team' to control it with all its
available means. (b) Assess the nature of fire and report in details to the site main
controller.
3. The site main controller shall (a) Take all actions to remove/control the fire. (b)
Ask the mutual aid services to be ready on demand, (c) Take help of mutual aid
services to fight fire, if it is uncontrolled. (d) Report the off- site fire fighting
services for help and action, (e) Report to control room for necessary action, (f)
Co-ordinate with offsite fire services to control the fire.

In case of Toxic Gas or Liquid Release:

1. All persons shall report about toxic gas or liquid release to section-in charge and
shall act to control or reduce it till possible. The section-in-charge will work as
incident controller .
2. The incident controller shall (a) Order the 'Gas Team' to control it with all its
available means. (b) Immediately report to the site main controller about the type
and possible cause and its likely effect to the people and property, (c) Inform the
site main controller for all likely precautions to be taken to reduce its effect.
(Isolation, fire fighting services, mutual aid etc.)
3. The site main controller shall (a) Order to all section ;n-charge to control/reduce
toxic release by all possible means.(b) Ask Gas Team and fire -fighting services of
the factory for necessary control and evacuation in the plant, (c) Report mutual aid
agency for help. (d) Operate alarm to warn the surrounding people before it is
likely to effect, (e) Report off site fire services.

Similarly duties (functions) of others shall also be described.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 118 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 7.3.6 Telephone Operators' Guide :

Telephone is the essential communication system. Tabulate all your internal

telephone numbers and outside emergency numbers for information and help. If any
telephone is torrid not working at a time, a speedy messenger shall be sent. Formulate
table-A for all internal phones and table-B for outside emergency phones.

A. Internal Phones :
Sr. No. Name of Phone Main Residence
the No. persons phones if
Department available any
1 2 3 4 5
B. Outside Emergency Phones :
Sr. No. Name of Phone Numbers Address
the Dept. / Off. Resi.
Service
1 2 3 4 5

In table-B, phones of your top executives, fire, ambulance, transport, hospitals,

doctors, ESIC, Red Cross, Police, Home guards. Factory Inspectorate, Collector,
experts, surrounding factories, power, water, gas, GIDC, Pollution Board and other Govt.
authorities, helping associations and institutions etc. shall be included.

Who shall inform the Govt. authority and others that shall be prescribed. Statutory
information, if any, shall be sent immediately.

The telephone operator shall give exact information of the place, nature and
severity of the emergency and shall not disconnect till the message is repeated at the
other end. He shall first hear the message without any interruption and record it. When
the message is over, he shall ask the missing links or further information required.

7.3.7 Emergency Shutdown Procedure :

Looking to the gravity of emergency, if it seems necessary to shut down the

process or plant, detailed instructions shall be laid down for plant/area.

Following table shall be prepared for each Shed/ Department/Area:

Name of the Plant/Shed/Dept/Area :

Sr. No. Location & Necessary Generally Remark

Phone shutdown by whom
procedure
(action)
1 2 3 4 5

7.3.8 Link with Off-site Emergency Plan :

To deal with the emergencies extending outside the factory premises and
affecting neighbouring area, off-site emergency control procedure and public warning

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 119 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 procedure shall be laid down and followed. Information required by the Govt. authorities
shall be furnished to make and update the Off-site Emergency Plan.

7.3.9 Pre-information to Doctors and Hospitals :

Antidotes, medicines and remedial measures shall be conveyed to surrounding
doctors and hospitals who will verify them before their use.

When any affected person will be sent, information regarding type, time and
duration of exposure and antidote shall also be sent.

7.3.10 Printed Plan, Copies and Rehearsal:

The on-site emergency plan so prepared shall be documented in a .typed or

printed form in sufficient copies to give to all concerned for knowledge, study and easy
follow up. Written notices (emergency instructions) shall be displayed at necessary
points. Merely understanding the plan will not be useful, safety is an acquired talent
which needs regular exercise. Therefore, the emergency plan shall be rehearsed and
practised at regular intervals to test efficiency of personnel, equipment, co-ordinated
efforts and to increase the confidence and experience to operate such plan successfully.
The personnel shall be properly trained for tills purpose.

7.4 Off-site Emergency (Disaster Management) Plan :

7.4.1 Purposes of the Plan :

Briefly they can be stated as-: (1) To save lives and injuries (2) To prevent or
reduce property losses (3) To prevent or reduce damage to environment, and (4) To
provide for quick resumption of normal situation or operation.

For further details the purposes are narrated as under:

1. To protect persons and properties of the factories in general and the affected
community as a whole.
2. To identify, assess, foresee and work out various kinds of probable hazards, their
place, potential, damaging capacity and area in case of all accidents, dangerous
occurrence (Rule 102, Gujarat Factories Rules), emergencies and disasters
happening in or affecting the jurisdiction at any time. In this regard it coincides
with the purpose of on-site emergency plan of a factory, and will go through the
on-site emergency plans of all factories in the jurisdiction and will guide or suggest
the missing aspects if any. The On-site Emergency Plans will be considered in
advance while making and operating this Disaster or Off-site Emergency Plan.
Thus on-site and offsite plans together will be single and co-operative 'package'
for the common purpose of fighting the emergency. Modifications in the plans and
reduction in quantity of materials may be suggested if necessary.
3. To make explicit the inter related set of actions to be undertaken in the event of an
industrial accident posing hazards to the community. The plan must be both
factual and action-oriented.
4. To inform people and surrounding about emergency and disaster if it is likely to
adversely affect them. Machinery will be established for this purpose to guide the
people in proper way.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 120 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 5. To plan for rescue and recuperation of casualties and injuries. To plan for relief
and rehabilitation.
6. To plan for evacuation, safe assembly points and transportation required.
7. To plan for prevention of harms, total loss control and recurrence of disaster. It will
be ensured that absolute safety and security is achieved within the shortest
possible time.
8. To contain, limit, localise and minimise the loss and damage to persons, property
and environment arised from the accidents on road or industry, transport, storage
or otherwise. To plan to decrease the potential levels of risk.
9. To prevent the spread and rehappening of the disaster.
10. To plan for review, rectification or modification of this Disaster Plan on the ground
of actual experience.
11. To plan for communication meeting with industries, authorities, experts,
institutions, doctors, hospitals etc.
12. To prepare a site plan, identifying industries, hazardous points, control points,
assembly points, hospitals, dispensaries, fire station, police station, railway
station, bus station, transport points, roads and all other requisite details.
13. To verify the information given by the industries to comprehend dangers and to
arrange for adequate personal protective, fire fighting and emergency equipment.
14. To establish command structure and to identify the respective roles of the senior
personnel of various service groups, viz. police commandos, experts-group, para
medical group, toxicity control and de-contamination squad and various authorities
of water, power, gas, health, labour, environment, revenue, explosive, pollution
control, press, post, telephone, wireless, radio, TV, railway, transport and social
services etc. Necessary representatives of employers and employees shall also
be incorporated. Various organisation, their duties, equipment, implementation
procedure and actions on-site and off-site, warning system, communication
system, co-ordination system, control centres, key personnel shall be prescribed.
15. Plan to carry out training programmes in safety, health and environmental
protection for the concerned parties. Necessary publication will also be useful.
16. To maintain full liaison between all parties to this plan, industries, emergency
services etc.
17. To plan for the antidotes, remedial medicines and equipment in the hospitals and
carry out research for them for latest and effective measures. Sufficient stock and
mutual aid scheme will be useful.
18. To provide for continuous monitoring system for essential parameters of pollution
to judge malfunctioning at the initial stages and warning systems at appropriate
places. Meteorological information regarding prevailing weather conditions, wind
velocity and direction, rain and flood data for such data-collection.
19. To appoint a record keeper, historian and staff to collect information on the cause
of disaster and to maintain the record thereof and also of the plan proceedings.
20. To carry out mock implementation and rehearsal of this plan to ensure its efficacy,
test and response, interaction and co-ordination of operators of various service
organisations, evaluate the effectiveness and adequacy of the equipment and to
gain experience and confidence to implement the plan. The finalised Disaster Plan
shall be given to all concerned for implementation and rehearsal.

7.4.2 Plan of the Jurisdiction with Locational Layout:

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 121 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Like on-site emergency plan, a map or plan of the jurisdiction (area) with
locational details shall be prepared and all necessary points shall be shown for guidance.

7.4.3 Risk Assessment:

Risk assessment is most essential before designing any off-site emergency plan.
Hazardous factories and their hazard identification, other hazard prone areas and
general and specific risks, , transportation risk, storage risk, pollution risk by air and
water pollution, catastrophic risk such as disasters, natural calamities, acts of God,
earthquake, landslide, storm, high wind, cyclone, flood, scarcity, heavy rain, lightening,
massive infection, heavy fire, heavy explosion, lava/ vulcano, heavy spill, toxic exposure
or pollution, environmental imbalance or deterioration etc.; risks from social disturbances
such as war, riots, sabotage, bomb-threats, massive strike, great mischief, damaging
indiscipline etc., and risks inferred from the past accidents must be considered while
carrying out risk assessment for a particular area (viz. district) for which the off-site
emergency plan is to be prepared.

Types of disaster to
Sudden Natural Sudden human-made
Avalanche Structural collapse
Cold wave Building collapse
Earthquakes Mine collapse or cave-in
Floods Land disaster
Flash flood Sea disaster
Dam collapse Industrial/technological
Volcanic eruption accident
Glowing avalanche Explosions
Heat wave Chemical explosions
High wind cyclone Nuclear explosions or
Storm thermonuclear
Hail explosions
Sand storm Mine explosions
Storm surges Pollution
Thunder storms Acid rain
Tropical storms Chemical pollution
Tornado Atmospheric pollution
Insect infestation Chlorofluoro carbons
Landslide (CFs)
Earth flow Oil pollution
Power shortage Fires
Isunami & tidal wave Forest/grassland fire

Long-term Natural Long-term human made

Epidemics National (Civil Stage,
Drought Civil War)
Desertfication International
Food shortage or crop (War like encounters)
Failure Displaced population
Refugees

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 122 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Different groups or comities are formed to do different emergency functions as
under :

7.4.4 District or Central Control Committee (DCC or CCC) :

As the off-site emergency plan is to be prepared by the Government, a Central

Control Committee or Group shall be formed under the Chairmanship of the area head.
For example we assume a district structure and District Collector (is the Chairman of the
District Control Committee (DCC). Other officers from police, fire, factory, medical,
engineering, social welfare, publicity, railway, telephone, transport and requisite
departments shall be incorporated as members. Some experts will also be included for
guidance. A table of their names, addresses and telephone numbers shall be prepared.

The functions of this committee should be :

1. To work as main co-ordinating body constituted of necessary district heads and
other authorities with overall command, co-ordination, guidance, supervision,
policy decisions and doing all necessary things to control the disaster/ emergency
in the shortest time.
2. To take work from subordinate committees. If any committee is not functioning at
any time, the Chairman shall form a new committee.
3. To take in or relieve members to the DCC or other committees as per need or
Government's directions. This will be done by the Chairman of the DCC.
4. To prepare, review, alter, update or cancel this plan and to keep it a complete
document with all necessary details. Separate office and staff may be appointed
by the Chairman for co-ordination and well functioning of the plan.
5. To take advice and assistance from experts in this field to make the plan more
successful.
6. To set in motion all machinery to this plan in the event of disaster causing or likely
to cause severe, heavy or massive damage to public, property or environment or
as per the direction from the Government. The plan will be executed to control the
situation, remove the hazards, save the lives, losses etc. and provide shelter,
medical help etc. in the shortest possible time.
7. All members of the Committee shall be reportable to the Chairman and will act
with high integrity, well discipline, quick response, sincerity and best co-ordinated
efforts. They will attend meetings, prepare records and act in the direction of
smoothening the work. The member secretary will act as advisor to the Collector
who will conduct all co-ordination work as a District Head of all offices.
8. On receiving information of disaster or emergency from any source, the member
to the plan will inform the Chairman or his .subordinate in his absence.
9. On receiving such information the Chairman shall take quick decision whether to
operate this plan or not.
10. The Chairman shall immediately inform all secretaries of different committees to
be alert and ready and will give necessary order to concerned secretary/members
to rush to the spot for their respective work. Only necessary part of the plan will be
operated.
11. Public will also be informed about declaration of disaster and necessary
instructions for them.
12. The Incident Control Committee, Traffic Control Committee and Press Publicity
Committee will first be informed as they are needed first.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 123 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 13. All committees shall work as per their function and duties and as per their best
judgement, knowledge and machinery to control the situation within the shortest
time and without creating new hazard.
14. The Chairman shall form a Communication Committee (CC) consisting of his
representative and members from Telephone, Information and Railway
Departments to use their hot and fastest telephone lines (actually the Collector
must have such hot lines) for speedy communication. The CC will carry out all
communication with necessary agencies. The CC shall work continuously till the
disaster is over and the Chairman disperses it.
15. The DCC will continue the execution till the disaster is over and normalcy noticed.
Evacuated, injured or badly affected people will be given necessary help even
after the disaster is over. Public will be informed about restoration or resumption
of normal situation and cessation of declared disaster. Then the DCC will stop its
operation.
16. All committees will prepare and keep ready teams of necessary persons,
equipment, instruments, vehicles etc. to carry out their functions speedily,
efficiently and to work under their control.

7.4.5 Fire Control Team (FCT) :

Duly qualified and well experienced members shall be taken in this Fire Control
Team.

Function and duties of FCF should be :

1. To fight fire, control it and quench it completely. If uncontrollable, to stop its

spread and to report to the Chairman for further help from outside. The team
should have walky-talky or similar instrument to talk with members and directly
with the headquarters.
2. The members here are incharge of fire stations. Therefore, they have their crews,
fighters and equipment ready. They should always check that whether their
fighters, equipment, staff etc. are of required size, type, number etc. and they are
capable of quenching any type of fire.
3. On receiving information from the Chairman, the FCT Secretary or leader will
instruct other members also and they will reach immediately to the spot and will
extinguish the fire completely. They will not leave the place without the permission
of Secretary or Chairman and will also work with outside fire team if it is required
to call and such team is working in joint efforts.
4. With the help of Utility and Engineering Services Team the damaged area due to
dire or explosion will be made clean and accessible. Power, water, heavy
vehicles, diesel pumps etc. will be used as per need.

Flammable Releases :

The following examples show how events involving flammable materials may
need different planned responses.

(a) A major fire, but with no danger of an explosion e.g. fire in an oil storage tank. The
hazards would be prolonged high levels of thermal radiation and smoke. It is
unlikely that anyone outside the site would be affected immediately. Only houses

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 124 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 close to end directly expose to severe thermal radiation and would need to be
evacuated. In some cases it might be desirable to evacuate those areas severely
affected by smoke.

(b) A fire threatening a major item of plant or a storage tank containing hazardous
'materials. As part of the on-site assessment the consequences of such an event
should have been estimated and the area that it might be necessary to evacuate,
determined. Hence the appropriate response might be to evacuate those
potentially at risk

(c) A fire similar to (b) above, but developing too quickly to allow evacuation. The best
possible response might be to advise people to remain indoors away from
windows and shielded from line of sight of the fire. Evacuation should NOT be
attempted if there is a significant risk that a fireball or BLEVE could occur while
the people were in the open.

(d) For some major catastrophic events that occur without warning, it may not be
possible to take prior emergency action. However most such events are of very
short duration. The role of the emergency services would be rescue, treatment of
the injured, extinguishing secondary fires, etc. If such an event were to occur it
might well be that majority of people off-site would be indoors and receive only
relatively minor injuries.

Fire Stations and Equipment : Details of all fir( equipment should be kept in an
Annexure. Fin fighters/tenders, portable fire extinguishers, fire pump; and engines,
hoses, flanges and couplings, crosses asbestos clothing, water jel blankets, risers,
ladders reels etc. all necessary equipment including self breathing apparatus shall be

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 125 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 included in this Annexure. The FCT will verify this. It may consult TICT (Part 74.6) and
DCC (Part 744) for this purpose also

7.4.6 Toxic Incident Control Team (TICT):

Details of the team members shall be tabulated Duly qualified, experienced,

expert and responsible officers should be the members of this team. Expert on
chemistry, chemical engineering, health and hygiene, safety etc. are most useful.
Officers of Police Power, Pollution Control, Revenue etc., are also necessary for
incidental work. If such experts are no available in Government, they should be
incorporated from the private sector within the district.

Functions (aims and objectives} of this team and duties of the members
should include :

1. Main function of this team is to control the gas leakage, poisonous spill and air or
water pollution. Any toxic gas or its air mixture, vapour etc. or spill of dangerous
goods-solid, liquid or gas, poisonous spray, flow, water, soil, or environmental
pollution severely affecting the jurisdiction are the main subjects of this committee.
The members shall make all preparations to control such toxic exposures.

2. This team is headed by the secretary or a team leader. The District Collector is
common i.e. only one Chairman of all such teams. All members are reportable to
him. They will act under his guidance and report him about their work and
findings. The Secretary will work in advisory capacity. The Secretary will keep
necessary Annexures at his residence also.

3. The team will keep the list of toxicity control equipment. Many small factories,
though of hazardous nature, cannot afford all such equipment because of their
high cost.

4. The team will maintain a crew (group) of well trained persons with all safety
equipment necessary and with tools, vehicles, etc. to detect, control and' stop
completely all types of toxic exposures. This crew will accompany the team while
going to combat the situation. The team will select such persons and maintain the
list of their names, address, phones, arrangements to -call, and places of control
equipment etc.

5. On receiving information from the Chairman to, rush to the place of disaster, the
secretary and other members will reach the place with crew (in para-4)
accompanying or just following and try to control the situation. They will find out
the source of toxic exposure and will stop, close or remove it to a safer place if
possible. They will also try to neutralise, inactivate or detoxicate the toxicated
zone, localise and limit the spread of disaster, stop further development of chain
reaction or chain of disastrous events and decrease the levels of material causing
disaster.

6. The team will advise about the evacuation of people or staying in position
whichever and wherever necessary. The members of evacuation team will act
accordingly.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 126 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 7. After the situation is controlled and the danger is removed, the team will record
the causes of accident and suggest the measures immediately necessary to
return to the safe position and subsequent remedial measures for prevention of
accident. The team will submit this report to the Chairman who will send order of
'compliance. The concerned Government officers will also take necessary action
under their respective powers.

8. With the help of Utility and Engineering Service team the exposure/spillage area
will be made clean and accessible. Power, water, heavy vehicles, diesel pumps
etc. will be used as per need.

9. If the team finds that the disaster is uncontrollable by them, they will report the
Chairman for external help from the Government and other agencies. The TICT
should have walky-talky or similar instrument to talk with the members or directly
with the head-quarter. The Chairman will immediately arrange for such external
help available from wherever possible.

Toxic Release Control:

The following examples show how events involving toxic materials may need
different planned responses.

(a) A slow or intermittent release e.g. through a leaking relief valve. It would be
unlikely that anyone outside the site would be severely affected immediately,

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 127 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 although many of the notifiable substances have irritant properties or an unusual
smell. If there were reason to foresee that the release would not be controlled
quickly, or would grow with time, it might be desirable to evacuate those people
nearest to the site of release and most closely downwind of it, provided that this
evacuation would, increase their safety.
(b) A fire or mechanical damage that threatened an installation containing toxic
material. If the fire could not be controlled and if there was likely to be a
reasonable period before over pressurisation or plant failure occurred, evacuation
might be appropriate, 6nce again priority should be given to those nearest the
plant (in all directions) and those in an appropriate arc, e.g. 30°, downwind.
(c) Rapid event with a limited duration e.g. the fracture of a component that could be
isolated within reasonable time. Incidents that grow and are rapidly controlled
should not be meet by evacuation. Any toxic cloud format would be limited in size
and would be likely to drift past a particular spot relatively quickly. The best place
for people in the area would be indoors, upstairs, with windows and doors closed.

(d) A major event leading to a sudden release of a large quantity of a toxic substance,
which would form a large toxic cloud e.g. release to atmosphere of most of the
contents of a storage vessel through the failure of a tank shell, man-hole cover
etc. Although the probability of such an event occurring is very low, the
consequences would be severe for people living close to the incident and in the
path of the cloud. The role of the emergency services would be .rescue, treatment
of injured, making safe the affected areas etc. The major difference in releases of
toxic and flammable material is the toxic clouds tend to be hazardous down to
much lower concentration than flammable clouds and therefore may remain
hazardous over greater distances, while travelling with the wind. The
consequences arising from release of toxic material, drifting at perhaps 300

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 128 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 meters a minute and dispersing slowly, are difficult to predict. In every case,
however, the hazard is greatest close to the source and near the downwind
plume. Unless there is a delay, as in (a) or (b) above, the best course might be
NOT to attempt evacuation. For those who were not evacuated, but were then
exposed to a prolonged release, the chances of survival would diminish with the
passing of time. The Emergency Coordinating Officer (in-charge of off-site plan)

Controller of the factory from which the emergency is arised or the nearby factory
in case of emergency outside the factory premises, would have to make the quick
decision when and how to attempt rescue.

On hearing the major emergency alarm key personnel should report to the
Emergency Control Centre or other designated places. Every else should report to
predetermined place, viz. their normal place of work, an assembly point or toxic refuge
as appropriate to await further instructions.

On hearing the major emergency alarm the Incident Controller (or Deputy Incident
Controller in his absence) will contact the Emergency Control Centre to send necessary
help at the place of incident. If necessary, he will telephone at places to call essential
workers. With the help of essential workers, he will try to contain and control the incident.
He may direct to safely close down the plant if necessary. He will inform the action on
site to the Site Main Controller and will work under his direction and his own best
judgement depending on the situation. He will guide the own fire fighting team and the
outside Fire Brigade regarding type of action, extinguishing or controlling material and
equipment necessary. He will organise the help from all expert teams as may be
necessary. He will prevent the spread and control the situation within the shortest
possible time.

Non-essential workers will remain in their plants or go to the assembly points as

per direction to them from the Emergency Control Centre or the Incident Controller.

Outside agencies will help and work in consultation with the Incident Controller.

Toxicity Control Equipment : A list of such equipment including personal

protective equipment shall be maintained. This list is for the ready use of the TICT. It
may be expanded in future for more equipment and more details. As small canister gas
masks may not be much useful in higher concentration of toxic exposure, self breathing
apparatus and emergency kits must be kept in sufficient number.

7.4.7 Traffic Control, Law and Order, Evacuation and Rehabilitation Team (TERT):

This team is headed by the District Superintendent of Police (DSP, the Police
Head) as Secretary for overall control, supervision and guidance and all other Dy. S.P.,
P.I. and PSI of main police stations as members. Heads of Highway Police Petrol,
Homeguards and SRP may also be added if the DSP thinks fit and needs their help.

Functions and duties of this team should be :

1. To control traffic towards and near the place of disaster, to maintain law and
order, to remove mischief-mongers and law-breakers, to evacuate the places

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 129 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 badly affected or likely to be affected, to shift the evacuated people to safe
assembly points and to rehabilitate them after the disaster is over and safe signal
is given.
2. The police has to identify the dead, to deal with casualties (including post-mortem
procedure if necessary) and inform relatives of dead or injured.
3. On receiving information from the Chairman to rush to the place of disaster, the
Secretary (DSP) with necessary staff will immediately rush to the place and make
arrangement for necessary functions. He will work in consultation with the
Secretaries of TIGT and FCT for the purpose of area to be evacuated or to
maintain 'stay-in' position. He may consult the Chairman for further help if
necessary and will report the position and functions being carried out.
4. Necessary vehicles, wireless sets, and instruments for quick communications
shall be maintained and used as per need.
5. A list of all police control points shall be maintained. All details should be inserted
in it and it shall be kept up-to-date and handy.
6. The Secretary may prepare a detailed plan based on his staff and machinery and
keep up-to-date to carry out functions mentioned earlier. Such plan will be
approved by DCC and then, shall be used for faster control.
7. The help of Utility and Engineering team may be taken, if necessary for the
purpose of making the roads and area clean, removing any structure, incidental
work for evacuation and rehabilitation, use of water, power, heavy machinery etc.

Police Stations and Chowkies : All -Police Stations, Outposts and the control
points including Highway Petrol (Control) points shall be included in an Annexure. It shall
be maintained at all such points and at the residences of all members for
intercommunication and help. The Secretary may revise it and keep up-to-date.

Assembly Points : These points are intended to accommodate and keep persons
evacuated because of the disaster. They will be kept here temporarily till they
themselves go elsewhere or till the disaster is over, their original places are made safe
and they shall be sent back to those places. This work of bringing them to assembly
points and to shift them back for rehabilitation shall be done by TERT who can have help
from Welfare, Restoration and Resumption team. Big buildings of schools, colleges,
wadies, community halls, social or charitable places, clubs and other institutions may be
used for this purpose. Care shall be taken that least disturbance or damage may be
caused to their persons, property or daily working. Their previous consent shall also be
obtained. Tents may be erected if necessary. People brought to the assembly points are
taken care by the Welfare team.

Transport Centres and Vehicles : A list shall be maintained of vehicles which

may be needed for the purpose of evacuation, shifting of people and to carry back for
their rehabilitation. Vehicle Centres, type, capacity etc. should be mentioned. This table
also be kept up-to-date by the TERT. The centres and vehicle owners shall be informed
the purpose of their inclusion.

Evacuation Criteria:

For evacuation the following criteria are useful.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 130 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 An early decision will be required in many cases on the advice to be given to
people living 'within range' of the accident-in particular whether they should be evacuated
or told to go indoors. In the latter case, the decision can regularly be reviewed in the
event of an escalation of the incident. Consideration of evacuation may include the
following factors :

(a) In the case of a major fire but without explosion risk (e.g. an oil storage tank), only
houses close to the fire are likely to need evacuation, although a severe smoke
hazard may required this to be reviewed periodically;
(b) If a fire is escalating and in turn threatening a store of hazardous material, it might
be necessary to evacuate people nearby, but only if there is time; if insufficient
time exists, people should be advised to stay indoors and shield themselves from
the fire. This latter case particularly applies if the installation at risk could produce
a fireball with very severe thermal radiation effects (e.g. LPG storage);
(c) For releases or potential releases of toxic materials, limited evacuation may be
appropriate down wind if there is time. The decision would depend partly on the
type of housing 'at risk'. Conventional housing of solid construction with windows
closed offers substantial protection from the effects of a toxic cloud, while shanty
houses which can exist close to factories, particularly in developing countries,
offer little or no protection.

The major difference between releases of toxic and flammable materials is that
toxic clouds are generally hazardous down to much lower concentrations, and therefore
hazardous over greater distance. Also, a toxic cloud drifting at, say, 300 meters per
minute covers a large area of land very quickly. Any consideration of evacuation must
take this into account.

7.4.8 Medical Help, Ambulance and Hospital Team (MAHT):

This team is consisted of doctors for medical help to the injured persons because
of the disaster. Injury may be of any type : fire, gas effect, acid burn, poisoning, liquid-
spray, swallowing, fracture, skin irritation, damage to target organ, radioactive effect etc.,
through skin or eye contact, inhalation, ingestion, mucous membrane contact etc. Such
injuries may be mostly due to chemicals. Therefore doctors with the knowledge of
occupational health, hygiene and effect of such hazard parameters and treatment for
such injuries are most useful. As such doctors are rarely available, we have to mobilise
and utilise all available doctors in the area. Members of ambulance centres, blood-bank
runners, antidotes and medicines traders etc. may also be taken in. The MAHT may
expand the list for this purpose.

Functions and duties of this team include :

1. To give medical help to all injured as early as possible.
2. Civil Surgeon, is the secretary or team leader who will organise, his team. He may
take help from the District Health Officer (DHO), and other surgeons, consultants
and experts.
3. On receiving information from the Chairman to rush to the spot, he will
immediately inform his team and will proceed with all necessary equipment,
medicines etc. as early as possible. The Chairman, shall simultaneously inform
DHO and DHO will also start similarly. Civil Surgeon and DHO, both, will co-
ordinate their efforts with the help of other doctors they think necessary.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 131 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 4. First-aid and possible treatment shall be given on the spot or at some convenient
place or assembly points and the patients may be advised to shift to the hospitals
for further treatment. Ambulance vehicles shall be kept ready and used for this
purpose.
5. All efforts shall be on war basis to save maximum lives and to treat maximum
injuries. The Secretary shall employ' sufficient doctors, equipment etc. for this
purpose.
6. All members shall increase their knowledge to treat health hazards due to various
chemicals.
7. Continuity of treatment shall be maintained till the disaster is controlled and the
flow of injured is stopped. The secretary shall manage for this.
8. Sick and injured persons kept at assembly points shall also be. treated for medical
help.
9. The Secretary shall report to the Chairman of work done and for further help if
necessary. His team will leave the place only after the Chairman's permission.
10. The Secretary may prepare a detailed plan based on his staff and machinery and
keep uptodate to carry out functions mentioned above. Such plan will be approved
by the DCC and then shall be used for better treatment.

Doctors, Hospitals, Health Centres, Blood Banks etc. : A list will be maintained
for ready-reference of MAHT and others. The MAHT may modify this to include more
details.

Ambulance Centres and Vehicles : This will also be listed for the use of MAHT
who may modify it to include more details. The whole Disaster Plan aims mostly to
protect human life and injury. Therefore this team will play the vital role.

7.4.9 Utility and Engineering Services Team (VEST)

Without the help or regulation of. utility services of water, power, gas, fuel, coal,
steam etc. and that of engineering services of special vehicles, tools, equipment and
trained team, efforts of fighting the disaster will not be succeeded. Therefore members of
this team should be selected from such departments or services and listed. The
Executive Engineer (Road and Buildings), Executive Engineer GEB, Municipal
Commissioner or Chief Officers of Municipalities, Officers of GIDC, Transport, S.T.,
Railway, Boiler and private workshops are included. The list may be modified by the
DCC if necessary.

The functions and duties of this UEST should be:

1. To check, regulate, divert or stop the flow of electricity, water, gas, petrol, diesel
etc. for the purpose of cutting of the source of danger or to supply them for better
control, to run diesel engines and pumps etc. or to divert them for urgent need or
to help the victims, to run vehicles and fire fighters to control disaster, to supply
lift, hoist, crane, bull-dozer, heavy trucks, tankers, tractors, tools, labour etc.
wherever necessary for the speedy control of disaster and also for the subsequent
services necessary to restart and restore the original activities. It shall be ensured
that the loss will be minimum. The team may add more functions and duties for
varieties of engineering and utility services.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 132 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2. The UEST will keep up to date lists of heavy vehicles, power, water and gas
centres and may add more details if necessary.
3. The UEST may also work out a plan to coordinate and regulate all such services
for speedy execution and such plan shall be approved by the DCC.
4. Various trained teams will be maintained for different jobs. Lists of such teams,
workers, vehicles, equipment, machines, tools, their incharge etc. shall be
maintained to accompany.
5. On hearing instructions from the Chairman to go to the place of disaster or other
control place, the Secretary or team leader will give necessary instruction to
respective member and both will go there with their teams, vehicles, equipment
etc. as per need. They will carry out necessary functions and report to the
Chairman for work being done or further help from outside if necessary. The
members will be reportable to the Secretary and the Secretary to the Chairman.
6. After the work is over all teams, vehicles, equipment etc. shall be returned to their
original places and well maintained for reuse. The work shall be carried out on
war-basis without wasting the time.
7. Utilities to run the vehicles, machines and services shall be preserved in sufficient
stock.
8. The UEST will maintain liaison with TICT, FCT, MAHT and WRT for area of work
and high need centres. Help of workers of WRT may be taken in exceptional
cases and with permission.

Heavy vehicles, lifts, bull-dozers etc. : Its lists shall be maintained.

Power Control Centres : This is the list and details of GEB and other power
stations, sub-stations, distributing and control centres. Further details with map shall be
maintained up-to-date by UEST.

Water Control Centres : This is the list and details of all big water tanks and
pump-rooms of GIDC, Municipalities etc., canals, reservoirs, dams and all big water
control centres. Further details with map shall be maintained up-to-date by UEST.

7.4.10 Welfare, Restoration and Resumption Team (WRT) :

At the time of disaster many people may be badly affected. Injured people shall be
treated by MAHT but those not injured but displaced, kept at assembly points, dead,
those whose relative or property is lost, houses collapsed and in need of any kind of help
due to disaster shall be treated by this WRT. Therefore the officers of such departments
and welfare institutions arc included here

Functions and duties of this team should be :

1. To find out persons in need of human help owing to the disastrous effect. They
may give First-aid from doctors. They will serve the evacuated people kept at
assembly points. They will arrange for their food, water, shelter, clothing,
sanitation, cleaning up the area, washing, urinals, latrines, bedding, lighting,
vehicles or guidance to reach to railway or bus stations, hospitals and other

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 133 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 needful or useful places; for removal and disposal of dead bodies, for help to sick,
weak, children and needy persons for their essential requirements etc.
2. The team will also work for restoration of detached people, lost articles, essential
commodities etc. The team will also look after the restoration of government
articles. Such help may last for some time even after the disaster is over.
3. The team will also ensure that original activities, services and systems are
resumed again as they were functioning before the disaster. This is the last
activity of this Disaster Planning. The operation/execution of this Plan will be
stopped only when this team certifies that the disaster is over and it is verified that
all possible activities and services have restarted or resumed and the public life is
safe and normal. The team will decide the details for this purpose and will work
out a plan of check points. The plan will be approved by the DCC.
4. In carrying out above functions, help will also be taken from various social and
voluntary organisations like Red Cross Society, Scout, NCC, Homeguards, Rotary
Club, Lions Club, Sports Club, Junior Chambers, Youth Hostels, and so many
servicing societies, unions and associations.
5. On receiving information of disaster from the Chairman, the Secretary or team
leader will inform all members and organisations to reach to the spot. He will
systematically organise and coordinate their work so that no overcrowding,
overlapping, duplication or deficiency is noticed.
6. This team will arrange its own vehicles or vehicles of above organisations.
Volunteers of different organisations may use their own vehicles. If the vehicles
kept for other teams to this Plan are free or permitted, they may be used in
exceptional cases.
7. The WRT will work under the supervision of its secretary who will report to the
Chairman for work being done and further help if necessary.

Social and Voluntary Organisations : The names, addresses, telephone

numbers of members and type of help available from such organisations etc. are
to be kept ready.

7.4.11 Press, Publicity and Public Relations Team (PPPT)

The public has right to know about the disaster and the steps being taken to
control it. This should be clone through proper channel so that correct information can
be given and hearsay or distorted and exaggerated stories do not spread. For this
purpose and others this team is formed. Director of Information should be the secretary
or team leader and some elected members should also be included for public relations.
The team may co-opt more members with the approval of the DCC.

Functions and duties of this team should be :

1. On hearing from the chairman about disaster, die secretary will form a cell in his
office for disaster news. He will consult the Chairman about the policy of the news
and will follow it strictly.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 134 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 2. Periodical press-notes will be prepared and given to the news-men, news-
agencies, radio. Television etc.

3. The members of the team shall meet frequently for co-operation and good public
relations. .

4. Only correct and requisite news shall be given and panic, rumours, hearsay and
wrong stories shall be ruled out.

5. All work regarding listing of dead, publishing their number or names if necessary
and keeping their record will be done by this team. The family members of the
deceased shall be informed.

6. The mediamen may be brought to the area affected or area of work but they
will not be permitted to go where safety does not permit.

7. With the help of MP, MLA, Presidents of District Panchayat, Municipalities and
other local bodies, respectful leaders and representatives of the people, good
public relations shall be maintained for peace, harmony and co-operation from all
sides.

8. The committee will also prepare the reports to be sent to the Government.

9. A record shall be prepared and maintained about all facts starting with the disaster
till the final resumption of situation. All facts, causes of disaster, account of works
done, remedial measures and important aspects shall be preserved as a record.

10. Public will be informed about the start and the end of the disaster with the help of
vehicles and instruments.

Vehicles and Public Warning Instruments: A list of all government vehicles

immediately available at the call of the Collector are listed here with their departments,
phones, addresses etc. Instruments like loud-speaker, walky-talky, cell-phones etc.
should be listed. These vehicles and instruments shall be used to give information and
instruction to the public. Mostly they shall carry government officers, mediamen, press-
reporters, etc. moving for the purpose of the cooperation and co-ordination of all control
measures. The PPPT may revise this list for more details and will keep it up-to-date for
its functions.

All eight teams classified and described above are important for their valuable
functions. A rehearsal shall be carried out to check the usefulness and efficiency of their
working and to increase their confidence and experience for such collective work.

7.4.12 Role of the 'Mutual Aid' Agencies :

Various types of mutual aid available from the surrounding factories and other
agencies should be utilised, as per need, as a part of the on-site and offsite emergency
plan.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 135 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 Trained staff, equipment, instruments, materials, vehicles, doctors etc., can be
available from nearby factories. Agreement with them may be expressed or implied.

7.4.13 Role of the Factory Inspectorate :

The Factory Inspectors are likely to want to satisfy themselves that the
organisation responsible for producing the on-site plan has made adequate
arrangements for handling emergencies of all types, including major emergencies. They
may wish to see well-documented procedures and evidence of exercises undertaken to
test the plan.

In the event of an accident, the Factory Inspector will assist the District
Emergency Authority (Collector) for information and help in getting mutual aid from
surrounding factories.

Factory Inspector may wish to ensure that the affected areas are rehabilitated
safely. In addition, they may require items of plant and equipment essential for any
subsequent investigation to be impounded for expert analysis, and may also want to
interview witnesses as soon as practicable.

The communication system between the factory and various above role playing
authorities must be effective. Ineffective public telephone system will not be useful in
emergencies. Therefore it should be improved and other effective system like duplex
(two-way) radio telephone, wireless set, hot line, cellular phone, emergency lead vehicles
etc. should be maintained between important organisations.

EXERCISE
1. State, Explain, Mention or Discuss
1. The meaning and types of Safety Appraisal system.
2. Concept of Damage Control and its benefits.
3. Concept of Total Loss Control and its management.
4. Purpose, benefits and procedure of Job Safety Analysis.
5. Job Safety Analysis by giving one example.
6. Safety work permit, its objects, types and content.
7. As a Safety Officer you are told to design a safety work permit. Design one
format.
8. Meaning, usefulness and types of SOP.
9. Elements of ISO 14001 OR Advantages of OHSAS 18001.
10. Meaning, objectives and types of Safety Inspection.
11. Meaning and content of Safety Checklist.
12. Meaning, technique and benefits of Safety Sampling.
13. Purposes, process and types of Accident Investigation.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 136 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 14. As a Safety Officer, you have to design an accident investigation report.
Develop one such format.
15. Importance of keeping the records of all the accidents. Prepare a standard
format which can be used for keeping records in a uniform way.
16. Types of hazards and their detection techniques.
17. Risk assessment procedure.
18. What is HAZOP? Explain its stages, procedure, objective, team and
sequence of working.
19. DOW and MOND index.
20. What is Reliability and Reliability Engineering? State application of
reliability engineering.
21. Concept of MAH and its main Objectives.
22. Criteria for the Plant to be under MAH.
23. Role of MAH management of a Plant.
24. Role of Authorities OR Workers OR Public for MAH control.
25. Content of Onsite Emergency plan OR Off Site Emergency plan.

2. Write Short Notes:

1. Safety Appraisal System and its content.
2. Safety Inventory System OR Electrical Isolation permit.
3. Product Safety OR Safety Tag System.
4. Hot work permit OR Vessel entry permit.
5. Incident Recall Technique
6. Critical Incident Review Technique
7. Procedures Analysis
8. Methodical Analysis
9. Technique for Human Error Rate Prediction (THERP)
10. PERT and CPM
11. Safety Codes and Standards including ISO 14001 & OHSAS 18001
12. Planning and procedure of plant safety inspection.
13. Safety sampling checklist.
14. Agencies investigating accidents OR Accident analysis.
15. Ten points of Accident investigation report.
16. Risk progression chart.
17. Risk assessment methods.
18. Risk Manager's duties.
19. Risk counters OR Foot prints.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 137 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 20. Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)
21. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA)
22. Hazard file of HAZOP.
23. Fault Tree Analysis (FTA).
24. Event Tree Analysis (ETA).
25. Accident or Cause Consequence Analysis.
26. Maximum Credible Accident Assessment (MCAA).
27. Vulnerability Analysis.
28. "What if" Analysis.
29. Concepts of Critical Equipment and Devices.
30. Components of,-a MAH control system.
31. Requirement of Safe operation of MAH installation.
32. Types and consequences of Major Accident Hazards.
33. Meaning of Gas dispersion and Effects.
34. Types and Effects of Gas Dispersion.
35. Probit Analysis and its utility.
36. Need and Procedure of Safety Audit.
37. Audit Plan.
38. Content of Risk Assessment Report.
39. 'Reasons of Emergency Planning.
40. Role of Mutual aid agency.

3. Explain the Difference with -examples between following:

1. Qualitative and Quantitative Safety appraisal.
2. Preventive and Corrective Safety appraisal.
3. Damage control. Loss control and Loss prevention.
4. Job Safety Analysis and Plant Safety Inspection.
5. ISO 14000 and 14001 OR OHSAS 18000 and 18001.
6. General inspection and Special inspection.
7. Safety surrey and Safety tour.
8. Safety Sampling and Safety tour.
9. Hazard & Risk OR Risk Analysis and Risk Assessment.
10. Individual risk, Societal risk and Acceptable risk.
11. Risk transfer and Risk retention.
12. Qualitative and Quantitative Risk Assessment
13. Fire & Explosion.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 138 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 14. BLEVE,VCE&UVCE.
15. Dust cloud explosion and Flammable vapour cloud explosion.
16. Safety report. Safety Audit report and Risk Assessment report.
17. Audit objectives and Audit scope.
18. Onsite and Offsite Emergency plan.

Reference And Recommended Readings

1. Accident Prevention Manual for Industrial operations. National Safety council,

Chicago.
2. Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, ILO Geneva.
3. Industrial Hazard and Safety Handbook, King and Magid, Butterworth.
4. Occupational Safety, Management and Engineering, Wille Hammer, Prentice
Hall.
5. Industrial Safety, Roland P. Blake, Prentice Hall.
6. Industrial Safety Handbook, Handley, McGraw- Hill.
7. IS: 3786-1983.
8. The Factories Act 1948 and the Gujarat Factories Rules 1963.
9. Industrial Safety Chronicle, Vol. XVII, July-Sept. 1986, National Safety Council.
10. A Seminar Report on Risk Management and Public Liability Insurance by Indian
Institute of Chemical Engineers, February 1987.
11. Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, Vol. 1 & 2 Frank P. Lees, Butterworth.
12. Total Plant Safety Audit, Jeff Conrao, Chemical Engineering, May 14,1984.
13. Application of Fault Tree Analysis, R.W. Prugh, Loss Prevention Vol. 14, CEP
Technical Manual,
14. Using Event Trees and Fault Trees, Alice M. Schreiber, Chemical Engineering
Oct. 4, 1982.
15. Safety in Process Plant Design,. G.L. Wells, John Wiley'& Sons.
16. Runaway Reaction and Thermal Explosion, P.W. Smith, Chemical Engineering
Dec. 13, 1982.
17. Handbook of Industrial Loss Prevention, Factory Mutual Engineering Division,
McGraw-Hill.
18. Safety at Work, Hohn R. Ridely, Bulterworths.
19. Handbook of System and Product Safety, Willie Hammer.
20. System Safety : Technology and Application, Sol W. Malasky, Garland STPM
Press, New York and London.
21. A complete set of Safe Practices Pamphlets of the NSC, Chicago, Illinois.
22. Modern Safety Practices, De Reamer Russel, John Wiley & Sons.
23. Best's Safety Directory, Best Company, Park Avenue, Morris Town, NJ, USA.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 139 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 24 Encyclopaedia of Chemical Technology, Vol. 1 to 24 and also one concise
volume. Kirk Othmer.
25 The Condensed Chemical Dictionary, Hawley.
26 Risk Management and Insurance , C. Arthur Williams, Michael L. Smith and Peter
C. Young, McGraw-Hill.
27 Methodologies for Risk and Safety Assessment in Chemical Process Industries, A
Manual, Commonwealth Science Council, London.
28 Major hazard Control, ILO, Geneva.
29 Hazard & Operability Studies, R. Ellis Knowiton, NSC, Mumbai-22.
30 Hazardous Materials Emergency Planning Guide, NSC, Mumbai-22.
31 Technical Guidance for Hazards Analysis, NSC, Mumbai-22.
32 Safety Management, JV Grimaldi and RH Simonds, Richard D lrwin Inc.,
Homewood, Illinois.
33. Safety, Health & Environmental Audit, A.K. Rohtagi.
34. Safety in Process Control in Chemical Plants, Jefferey Pearson, MAHC, CLI,
Mumbai.
35. Compilation and Assessment of a Safety Report for Major Accident Hazard
Factories/ Installations, CLI, Mumbai.
36. Inspection of Major Accident Hazard Installations, CLI, Mumbai.
37. Office Circulars of the Factory Inspectorates regarding on-site and off-site
emergency plans.
38. Prevention of Major Industrial Accidents, ILO, Geneva.
39. On-Site Emergency Response Planning Guide by Richard T. Vulpitta
40. Prevention of Industrial Disasters Report V, Part 1. International Labour
conference, 79th Session, 1992 - ILO
41. Process Safety Analysis An Introduction by Bob Skelton
42. Emergency Incident Management Systems:' Fundamentals and Applications by
Louis N. Molino, Sr.
43. Effective Maintenance Management: Risk and Reliability Strategies for Optimizing
Performance by V. Narayan
44. Emergency Incident Management Systems: Fundamentals and Applications by
Louis N. Molino, Sr.
45. Emergency Preparedness for Facilities: A Guide to Safety Planning and Business
Continuity by David Casavant
46. Hazard Analysis Technique for System Safety by Clifton A. Ericson, II
47. Job Hazard Analysis by George Swartz
48. Managing Maintenance Shutdowns and Outages by Joel Levitt
49. Managing Risk and Reliability of Process Plants By Mark Tweed dale

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 140 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 50. Nuclear, Chemical, and Biological Terrorism: Emergency Response and Public
Protection by Mark E. Byrnes, David A. King and Philip M. Tierno, Jr
51. Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative risk Analysis, Centre for Chemical
Processes Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York, 1989.
52. Principles of Health Risk Assessment, Ricci, Prentice-Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, NJ,
1985.
53. High Risk Safety Technology, Green AE, ed, Wiley, New York, 1982.
54. Air Toxics and Risk Assessment, Calabrese EJ and Kenuon E, Lewis Publishers,
Chelsea, MI, 1990.
55. Environmental Risk Analysis for Chemicals, Conway RA, ed. Van Nostrand,
Reinhold, New York. 1981.
56. Elements of Toxicology and Chemical Risk Assessment, Environment
Corporation, Washington DC, 1986."
57. Managing Risk : Systematic Loss Prevention for Executives, Grose VL, Prentice
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988.
58. Risk Management : Concepts and Applications, Mehr. R.I. and Hedges BA,
Richard D lrwin, Homewood IL, 1974.
59. Evaluation Methods for Environmental Standards, Rowe WD, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 1983.
60. Governmental Management of Chemical Risk, Zimmerman R, Lewis Publishers,
Chelsea, MI, 1990.
61. Engineering Design for the Control of Workplace Hazards, Richard A Wadden,
Peter A Schef, McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, USA.
62. Effects and Damage Calculations of Accidents with Hazardous materials, M.
Molag, T.N.O. Course Book - Risk Analysis, T.N.O. Apaldoorn, Netherlands.
63. Gas Dispersion Modelling, Engineers India Ltd. Central Labour Institute, Sion,
Mumbai.
64. Methodologies for Risk & Safety Assessment in Chemical Process Industries,
Raghvan K.V., Khan A.K., Commonwealth Science Council, London.
65. Guidelines on Compilation and Assessment of a Safety Report for Major Accident
Hazard Factories / Installations, by Central Labour Institute, Sion, Mumbai.
66. Technical Guidance on Hazards Analysis by National Safety Council.
67. Chemical Hazards in the Workplace, Measurement & Control, Gangadhar
Choudhary, American Chemical Society.
68. Risk Management Program Guidance for Offsite Consequence Analysis - RMP
Series, United States Environmental Protection Agency, April, 15, 1999.
69. Guidelines for Hazard Evaluation Procedures, Centre for Chemical Process
Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1992.
70. Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis, Centre of Chemical
Process Safety, American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 2000.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 141 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques
 71. Methods for Determination of Possible Damage to People and Objects Resulting
from Release of Hazardous Materials, - Committee for the Prevention of Disasters
caused by Dangerous Substances, The Hague, 1992, TNO.
72. Methods for Calculation of Physical Effects, Committee for the Prevention of
Disasters caused by Dangerous Substances, The Hague, 1997, TNO.

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 142 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment
and Control Techniques