ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI

CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 5

MAGNETISM AND MATTER – PART 1

INTRODUCTION

Magnetic phenomena are universal in nature. The word magnet is derived from the name of

an island in Greece called magnesia where magnetic ore deposits were found, as early as 600 BC.

Some of the commonly known ideas regarding magnetism are:

(i) The earth behaves as a magnet with the magnetic field pointing approximately from the

geographic south to the north.

(ii) When a bar magnet is freely suspended, it points in the north-south direction. The tip

which points to the geographic north is called the north pole and the tip which points to

the geographic south is called the south pole of the magnet.

(iii) There is a repulsive force when north poles ( or south poles ) of two magnets are brought

close together. Conversely, there is an attractive force between the north pole of one

magnet and the south pole of the other.

(iv) We cannot isolate the north, or south pole of a magnet. If a bar magnet is broken into

two halves, we get two similar bar magnets with somewhat weaker properties. Unlike

electric charges, isolated magnetic north and south poles known as magnetic monopoles

do not exist.

(v) It is possible to make magnets out of iron and its alloys.

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THE BAR MAGNET

The arrangement of iron filings sprinkled on a sheet of glass placed over a short bar magnet

is shown in the Figure. The pattern mimics magnetic field lines.

The pattern of iron filings suggests that the magnet has two poles similar to the positive and

negative charge of an electric dipole. When suspended freely, these poles point approximately

towards the geographic north and south poles, respectively. A similar pattern of iron filings is

observed around a current carrying solenoid.

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PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC FIELD LINES

The field lines of a The field lines of a current The field lines of an
bar magnet carrying finite solenoid electric dipole

At large distances, the field lines are very similar.

The curves labelled (i) and (ii) are closed Gaussian surfaces.

(1) The magnetic field lines of a magnet (or a solenoid) form continuous closed loops. This is

unlike the electric dipole where these field lines begin from a positive charge and end on

the negative charge or escape to infinity.

(2) The tangent to the field line at a given point represents the direction of the net magnetic

field B at that point.

(3) The larger the number of field lines crossing per unit area, the stronger is the magnitude

of the magnetic field B. In Figure (a), B is larger around region (ii) than in region (i).

(4) The magnetic field lines never intersect. If they do so, then there will be two directions of

the magnetic field at the point of intersection, which is impossible.

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BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID

The distribution of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet is similar to that produced by

finite current carrying solenoid. This is evident from the fact that a compass needle when

moved around these two bodies show similar deflections.

The field lines of a The field lines of a current

bar magnet carrying finite solenoid

After noting the close resemblance between these two, Ampere demonstrated that a finite

current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet and put forward that all the magnetic

phenomena is due to circulating electric current. This is Ampere’s hypothesis.

The magnetic field of a current carrying finite solenoid at the axial point is given by

µo 2m
B=
4π r 3

This expression is same as the magnetic field of a bar magnet at the axial point.

Thus, a bar magnet and a solenoid produce similar magnetic fields. The magnetic moment of

a bar magnet is thus equal to the magnetic moment of an equivalent solenoid that produces

the same magnetic field.

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TORQUE ACTING ON A MAGNETIC DIPOLE IN UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

Consider a bar magnet of length (2l ) and pole strength (qm) kept in a uniform magnetic field

(B) as shown in the Figure.

Each pole experiences a force of magnitude (qmB) but acting in opposite directions. Therefore,

the net force exerted on the magnet is zero.

These two equal and opposite forces constitute a torque that tends to align the magnet in the

direction of the magnetic field.

r
sin θ = ; r = 2l sin θ
2l

Torque = Force x Perpendicular distance (r)

τ = qmB x 2l sinθ

τ = mB sinθ ( since magnetic moment (m) = qm x 2l )

→ → →
In vector notation, τ = m x B
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POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A BAR MAGNET IN A UNIFORM MAGNETIC FIELD

The magnetic potential energy is given by

Um = ∫ τ dθ

Um = ∫ mB sin θ dθ
Um = mB(–cosθ)

Um = –mB cosθ

e
ut
→ →
In vector notation, Um = − m . B tit
(1) Most stable position:

When θ = 0o, Um = –mB cos0o = –mB

ns

Thus the potential energy is minimum when the bar magnet is parallel to the magnetic
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field. This is the most stable position.

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(2) Most unstable position:

When θ = 180o, Um = –mB cos180o = –mB (–1) = mB

A

Thus the potential energy is maximum when the bar magnet is antiparallel to the

magnetic field. This is the most unstable position.

(3) Position of zero potential energy:

When θ = 90o, U = –mB cos90o = 0

Thus the potential energy is zero when the bar magnet is perpendicular to the magnetic

field. This is the position of zero potential energy.

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THE DIPOLE ANALOGY

Electrostatics Magnetism

Charge (q) Pole Strength (qm)

Electric dipole moment (p) Magnetic dipole moment (m)

p = q (2a) m = qm (2l )

The direction of electric dipole moment is The direction of magnetic dipole moment is
from negative charge to positive charge from south pole to north pole

e
1

ut
µo
εo

Electric field at a point along the axial line Magnetic field at a point along the axial line
of the electric dipole
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of the magnetic dipole
→ →
→ 1 2 p → µ 2m
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E axial = B axial = o 3
4πε o r 3 4π r

Electric field at a point along the equatorial Magnetic field at a point along the
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line of the electric dipole equatorial line of the magnetic dipole

→ →
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→ 1 p → µ m
E equatorial = – B equatorial = – o 3
4πε o r 3 4π r
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Torque acting on an electric dipole in Torque acting on a magnetic dipole (bar

uniform electric field magnet) in uniform magnetic field

τ = pE sinθ τ = mB sinθ
→ → → → → →
τ = px E τ = mx B

Potential energy of an electric dipole in a Potential energy of a magnetic dipole (bar

uniform electric field magnet) in a uniform magnetic field
→ → → →
U = –pEcosθ = – p . E U = –mBcosθ = – m . B
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SOME IMPORTANT TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF

MATERIALS

(1) Magnetic Intensity: The ability of magnetic field to magnetize a material is called the

→
magnetic intensity. It is a vector quantity and is denoted by H and its unit is Am–1.

(2) Magnetisation :

The net magnetic moment developed per unit volume of a material is called

e
ut
→
Magnetisation. It is a vector quantity and is denoted by M and its unit is Am–1

→
→
M =
m
tit
V
ns
Consider a long solenoid of n turns per unit length and carrying a current I. The

magnetic field in the interior of the solenoid is given by

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Bo = µonI
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If the interior of the solenoid is filled with a material with non-zero magnetisation, the
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field inside the solenoid will be greater than Bo.

The net magnetic field (B) in the interior of the solenoid becomes

B = Bo + Bm

where Bm is the field contributed by the material core.

Bo = µoH ; Bm = µoM

B = µoH + µoM

B = µo (H + M)
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(3) Magnetic permeability : The magnetic permeability is the measure of ability of the

material to allow the passage of magnetic field lines through it.

In free space (or) vacuum, the permeability is denoted by µo and for any other medium

it is denoted by µ.

The relative permeability µr is defined as the ratio of the permeability of the medium to

the permeability of free space.

µ
µr =
µo

e
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(4) Magnetic Susceptibility : It is a measure of how a magnetic material responds to an

external (applied) magnetic field. The ratio of the magnetisation to the magnetic
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intensity is called magnetic susceptibility.
ns
M
χ=
H
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Relation between Magnetic permeability and Magnetic Susceptibility

B = µo(H + M) 
→ (1)
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B = µH 
→ (2)

Equating equations (1) and (2)

A

µH = µo(H + M)

M
χ= ; M = χH
H

µH = µo(H + χH)

µH = µo(1 + χ)H

µ = µo(1 + χ)

µ
=1+χ
µo

µr = 1 + χ
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 5
MAGNETISM AND MATTER – PART 2

MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

DIAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetic substances are those which have tendency to move from stronger to the weaker

part of the external magnetic field. It means that diamagnetic substance is repelled by the

external magnetic field.

Figure shows a bar of diamagnetic material placed in an external magnetic field. The field

lines are repelled or expelled and the field inside the material is reduced.

When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the diamagnetic bar will tend to move from

stronger to the weaker part of the field.

Electrons in an atom are orbiting around the nucleus. These orbiting electrons are equivalent

to current-carrying loop and thus possess orbital magnetic moment. In diamagnetic

substances, the resultant magnetic moment of an atom is zero.

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When magnetic field is applied, those electrons having orbital magnetic moment in the same

direction slow down and those in the opposite direction speed up. This happens due to

induced current in accordance with Lenz’s law. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic

moment in direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence repulsion.

Some diamagnetic materials are bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water and

sodium chloride. Diamagnetism is present in all the substances. However, the effect is so weak

e
ut
in most cases that it gets shifted by other effects like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
tit
The most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors. These are metals, cooled to very
ns
low temperatures which exhibits both perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here

the field lines are completely expelled. χ = –1 and µr = 0. A superconductor repels a magnet &
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(by Newton’s third law) is repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of perfect diamagnetism
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in superconductors is called the Meissner effect.

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PARAMAGNETISM

Paramagnetic substances are those which get weakly magnetised when placed in an external

magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to strong

magnetic field, i.e., they get weakly attracted to a magnet.

The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material possess a permanent

magnetic dipole moment of their own. On account of the ceaseless random thermal motion of

the atoms, the net magnetic moment of the paramagnetic substance is zero.

In the presence of an external magnetic field, the torque acting on the atomic dipoles will align

them in the field direction. As a result, there is net magnetic dipole moment induced in the

direction of the applied field.

Figure shows a bar of paramagnetic material placed in an external field. The field lines gets

concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is enhanced.

When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the paramagnetic bar will tend to move from

weaker to the stronger part of the field.

Some paramagnetic materials are aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper

chloride. For a paramagnetic material both χ and µr depend not only on the material, but also

on the sample temperature.

As the field is increased or the temperature is lowered, the magnetisation increases until it

reaches the saturation value at which point all the dipoles are perfectly aligned with the field.
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FERROMAGNETISM

Ferromagnetic substances are those which gets strongly magnetised when placed in an

external magnetic field. They have strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic

field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they get strongly attracted to a magnet.

The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic material possess a dipole

moment as in a paramagnetic material. However, they interact with one another in such a

way that they spontaneously align themselves in a common direction over a macroscopic

volume called domain. Each domain has net magnetisation. However the direction of

magnetisation varies from domain to domain & thus net magnetisation of the specimen is zero.

Randomly oriented domains Aligned domains

External Magnetic Field

When a ferromagnetic material is placed in an external magnetic field, all the domains align

themselves along the direction of the field leading to the strong magnetisation of the material

along the direction of the field.

Thus, in a ferromagnetic material the field lines are highly concentrated. In non-uniform

magnetic field, the sample tends to move from weaker to the stronger part of the field.
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What happens to ferromagnetic materials when the external field is removed?

In some ferromagnetic materials the magnetisation persists. Such materials are called hard

magnetic materials or hard ferromagnets. Alnico, an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt

and copper, is one such material. The naturally occurring lodestone is another. Such

materials are used to form permanent magnets.

On the other hand, there is a class of ferromagnetic materials in which the magnetisation

e
disappears on removal of the external field. Soft iron is one such material. such materials are

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called soft ferromagnetic materials. tit
There are a number of elements, which are ferromagnetic: iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium,

etc. The relative magnetic permeability is > 1000.

ns

The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough temperature, a

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ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet. The domain structure disintegrates with temperature.

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This disappearance of magnetisation with temperature is gradual.

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DIAMAGNETIC PARAMAGNETIC FERROMAGNETIC

Magnetic susceptibility is Magnetic susceptibility is Magnetic susceptibility is

negative positive and small positive and large

Relative permeability is Relative permeability is Relative permeability is

slightly less than one slightly greater than one very large

µ < µo µ > µo µ > > µo

Acquire feeble magnetisation Acquire feeble magnetisation Acquire strong magnetisation

in the opposite direction of in the direction of the in the direction of the

e
the magnetising field magnetising field magnetising field

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The magnetic field lines are The magnetic field lines are The magnetic field lines are
repelled or expelled by
tit
weakly attracted into the strongly attracted into the
diamagnetic materials when paramagnetic materials when ferromagnetic materials when
placed in a magnetic field placed in a magnetic field placed in a magnetic field
ns

When placed in a non-uniform When placed in a non-uniform When placed in a non-uniform

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magnetic field, the magnetic field, the magnetic field, the

diamagnetic materials will paramagnetic materials will ferromagnetic materials will
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have a tendency to move have a tendency to move have a tendency to move

from stronger to weaker part from weaker to stronger part from weaker to stronger part
of the field of the field of the field
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Susceptibility is independent Susceptibility is inversely Susceptibility is inversely

of temperature proportional to temperature proportional to (T – TC)
1 1
χ∝ χ∝
T T − TC
TC → Curie temperature
At TC, the ferromagnetic
material becomes paramagnetic