ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI

CBSE – CLASS XII – PHYSICS – CHAPTER 13

NUCLEI

INTRODUCTION

In every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the centre of the atom

forming its nucleus. The overall dimensions of a nucleus are much smaller than those of an

atom. Experiments on scattering of α-particles demonstrated that the radius of a nucleus was

smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor of about 104. This means the volume of a

nucleus is about 10–12 times the volume of the atom. In other words, an atom is almost empty.

If an atom is enlarged to the size of a classroom, the nucleus would be of the size of pinhead.

Nevertheless, the nucleus contains most (more than 99.9%) of the mass of an atom.

Does the nucleus have a structure, just as the atom does? If so, what are the constituents of

the nucleus? How are these held together? In this chapter, we shall look for answers to such

questions. We shall discuss various properties of nuclei such as their size, mass and stability,

and also associated nuclear phenomena such as radioactivity, fission and fusion.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS

The nucleus contains protons and neutrons.

The neutrons are electrically neutral (q = 0) and the protons have positive charge (q = +1.6 x

10–19 C) equal in magnitude to the charge of the electron (q = –1.6 x 10–19 C).

The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic number and it is denoted by Z.

The number of neutrons in the nucleus is called neutron number (N).

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The total number of neutrons and protons in the nucleus is called the mass number and it is

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denoted by A. Hence, A = Z + N.
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The two constituents of nucleus namely neutrons & protons, are collectively called as nucleons.

Mass of a proton (mp) = 1.67262 x 10–27 Kg

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Mass of a neutron (mn) = 1.6749 x 10–27 Kg
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A
A nucleus of an element is represented as ZX, where X is the chemical symbol of the element,
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Z is the atomic number and A is the mass number.

A

197
For example, the nucleus of gold is denoted by 79 Au .

It contains 197 nucleons, of which 79 are protons and the rest 118 are neutrons.

Since the nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons,

the overall charge of the nucleus is positive and it has the value +Ze.

But the atom is electrically neutral which implies that the number of electrons in the atom is

equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.

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ISOTOPES

Atoms of the same element having same atomic number Z, but different mass number A are

called as isotopes.

In other words, atoms of the same element whose nuclei have same number of protons but

different number of neutrons are called as isotopes.

1
Example: Hydrogen has three isotopes and they are represented as 1 H (Hydrogen),

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2
1H (Deuterium) and 31 H (Tritium).

1
tit 2 3
1 H (Hydrogen) 1H (Deuterium) 1H (Tritium)
ns
Number of protons 1 1 1

Number of neutrons 0 1 2
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Since the chemical properties of any atom are determined only by electrons, the isotopes of

any element have same electronic structure and same chemical properties. So the isotopes of
A

the same element are placed in the same location in the periodic table.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
ISOBARS

Atoms of different elements having the same mass number A, but different atomic number Z

are called as Isobars.

In other words, isobars are the atoms of different chemical elements which have same number

of nucleons.

3 3
Example: 1H and 2 He are isobars.

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Unlike isotopes, isobars are chemically different elements. They have different physical and

chemical properties.
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ns

ISOTONES
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Atoms of different elements having same number of neutrons are called as isotones
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12 13
5B and 6C are examples of isotones with 7 neutrons each.
A

14 16
6C and 8O are examples of isotones with 8 neutrons each.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
AVERAGE MASS OF A CHLORINE ATOM

Most elements are mixtures of two or more isotopes.

The atomic mass of an element is a weighted average of the masses of its isotopes and

calculated in accordance to the relative abundances of the isotopes.

35 37
For example, chlorine has two isotopes ( 17 Cl and 17 Cl ) having masses 34.98 u and 36.98 u.

The relative abundances of these isotopes are 75.4 and 24.6 per cent, respectively.

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75.4 x 34.98 + 24.6 x 36.98
Average mass of a chlorine atom =
100
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2637.5 + 909.7 3547
Average mass of a chlorine atom = = = 35.47 u
100 100
ns
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A
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
ATOMIC MASS UNIT

The mass of an atom is very small, compared to a kilogram. For example the mass of a carbon

(12C) atom is 1.992647 x 10–26 Kg. Kilogram is not a very convenient unit to measure such

small quantities. Therefore, another unit called atomic mass unit (u) is used for expressing

atomic masses.

Atomic mass unit (u) is defined as 1/12th of the mass of the carbon (12C) atom.

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According to this definition,

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12
mass of one C atom
1u=
12
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1.992647 x 10 −26 19.92647 x 10 −27
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1u= =
12 12

1 u = 1.660539 x 10–27 Kg
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Mass of a proton (mp) = 1.67262 x 10–27 Kg = 1.00727 u

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Mass of a neutron (mn) = 1.6749 x 10–27 Kg = 1.00866 u

A

Mass of a hydrogen atom (mH) = 1.00783 u

Mass of a electron (me) = 0.00055 u

Mass of a proton (mp) = mH – me = 1.00783 – 0.00055 = 1.00728 u

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
SIZE OF THE NUCLEUS

At Rutherford’s suggestion, Geiger and Marsden performed α-particle scattering experiment

using thin gold foil. Their experiments revealed that the distance of closest approach to a gold

nucleus of an α-particle of kinetic energy 5.5 MeV is about 4.0 x 10–14 m.

Since the positive charge is confined to the nucleus, the actual size of the nucleus has to be less

than 4.0 x 10–14 m.

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If we use α-particles of higher energies than 5.5 MeV, the distance of closest approach to the

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gold nucleus will be smaller and at some point the scattering will begin to be affected by the
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short range nuclear forces and differ from Rutherford’s calculations.
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Rutherford’s calculations are based on pure coulomb repulsion between the positive charges
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of the α-particle and the gold nucleus. From the distance at which deviations set in, nuclear
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sizes can be inferred.

By performing scattering experiments using fast electrons, instead of α-particles, bombarding

A

targets made up of various elements, the sizes of nuclei of various elements have been

accurately measured.

It has been found that a nucleus of mass number A has a radius

R = Ro A1/3

Where Ro = 1.2 x 10–15 m = 1.2 fm

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Nuclear Volume

4 4 4
V= πR 3 = π( R o A1 / 3 )3 = πR o3 A
3 3 3

This means the volume of the nucleus, which is proportional to R3 is proportional to A.

Nuclear Density

Nuclear Mass Am N mN 1.67 x 10 −27

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Nuclear Density = = = =
Nuclear Volume 4 4 4
πR o3 A πR o3 x 3.14 x (1.2 x 10 −15 )3

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3 3 3

Nuclear Density = 2.3 x 1017 kg m–3

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The nuclear density is independent of mass number A.
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This density is very large compared to ordinary matter, say water, which is 103 kg m–3. This is
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understandable, as we have already seen that most of the atom is empty. Ordinary matter
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consisting of atoms has a large amount of empty space.

A
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EINSTEIN’S MASS – ENERGY EQUIVALENCE

Einstein showed from his theory of special relativity that it is necessary to treat mass as

another form of energy. Before the advent of this theory of special relativity it was presumed

that mass and energy were conserved separately in a reaction. However, Einstein showed that

mass is another form of energy and one can convert mass-energy into other forms of energy,

say kinetic energy and vice-versa.

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Einstein gave the famous mass-energy equivalence relation

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E = mc2
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Here the energy equivalent of mass m is related by the above equation and c is the velocity of
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light in vacuum and is approximately equal to 3 x 108 m/s.
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A
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
NUCLEAR BINDING ENERGY

We know that the nucleus is made up of neutrons and protons. Therefore it may be expected

that the mass of the nucleus is equal to the total mass of its individual protons and neutrons.

However, the nuclear mass M is found to be always less than this.

16
For example, let us consider 8O nucleus which has 8 neutrons and 8 protons.

Mass of 8 neutrons = 8 × 1.00866 u

Mass of 8 protons = 8 × 1.00727 u

Mass of 8 electrons = 8 × 0.00055 u

16
Therefore the expected mass of 8O nucleus = 8 x 2.01593 u = 16.12744 u.

16.12744 u 15.99053 u

16
The atomic mass of 8O found from mass spectroscopy experiments is seen to be 15.99493 u.

Substracting the mass of 8 electrons (8 × 0.00055 u) from this, we get the experimental mass of

16
8 O nucleus to be 15.99053 u.

16
Experimental mass of 8 O nucleus = 15.99493 – (8 × 0.00055) = 15.99493 – 0.0044 = 15.99053 u

∆M = 16.12744 – 15.99053 = 0.13691 u

The difference in mass of a nucleus and its constituents ∆M is called the mass defect.

∆M = [Zmp + (A – Z)mn] – M
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Since the mass of the oxygen nucleus is less that the sum of the masses of its constituents (8

protons and 8 neutrons, in the unbound state), the equivalent energy of the oxygen nucleus is

less than that of the sum of the equivalent energies of its constituents.

If one wants to break the oxygen nucleus into 8 protons and 8 neutrons, this extra energy

∆M.c2 has to supplied.

Energy has to be supplied

15.99053 u 16.12744 u
Less Equivalent Energy More Equivalent Energy

If a certain number of neutrons and protons are brought together to form a nucleus of a

certain charge and mass, an energy Eb will be released in the process. The energy Eb is called

the binding energy of the nucleus.

Eb = ∆M.c2

Energy will be Released

16.12744 u 15.99053 u
More Equivalent Energy Less Equivalent Energy

If we separate a nucleus into its nucleons, we would have to supply a total energy equal to Eb,

to those particles. Although we cannot tear apart a nucleus in this way, the nuclear binding

energy is still a convenient measure of how well a nucleus is held together.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON CURVE

A more useful measure of the binding between the constituents of the nucleus is the binding

energy per nucleon, Ebn, which is the ratio of the binding energy Eb of a nucleus to the number

of the nucleons A, in that nucleus:

Eb
Ebn =
A

The above Figure is a plot of the binding energy per nucleon Ebn versus the mass number A

for a large number of nuclei.

Main features of the plot:

• The binding energy per nucleon, Ebn is practically constant, i.e. practically independent

of the mass number for nuclei of middle mass number (30 < A < 170). The curve has a

maximum of about 8.75 MeV for A = 56 and has a value of 7.6 MeV for A = 238.

• Ebn is lower for both light nuclei (A < 30) and heavy nuclei (A > 170).
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
Conclusions from the plot:

(1) The force is attractive and sufficiently strong to produce a binding energy of a few MeV

per nucleon.

(2) The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30 < A < 170 is a consequence of the fact

that the nuclear force is short-ranged.

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Consider a particular nucleon inside a sufficiently large nucleus. It will be under the

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influence of only some of its neighbours, which come within the range of the nuclear force.
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If any other nucleon is at a distance more than the range of the nuclear force from the
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particular nucleon it will have no influence on the binding energy of the nucleon under

consideration. If a nucleon can have a maximum of p neighbours within the range of

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nuclear force, its binding energy would be proportional to p. Let the binding energy of the
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nucleus be pk, where k is a constant having the dimensions of energy.

A

If we increase A by adding nucleons they will not change the binding energy of a nucleon

inside. Since most of the nucleons in a large nucleus reside inside it and not on the surface,

the change in binding energy per nucleon would be small. The binding energy per nucleon

is a constant & is approximately equal to pk. The property that a given nucleon influences

only nucleons close to it is also referred to as saturation property of the nuclear force.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
(3) A very heavy nucleus, say A = 240, has lower binding energy per nucleon compared to

that of a nucleus with A = 120. Thus if a nucleus A = 240 breaks into two A = 120 nuclei,

nucleons get more tightly bound. This implies energy would be released in the process. It

has very important implications for energy production through fission.

Energy will be Released

A = 120 A = 120
A = 240 Higher Ebn ; 8.5 MeV
Lower Ebn ; 7.6 MeV Tightly Bound

(4) Consider two very light nuclei (A ≤ 10) joining to form a heavier nucleus. The binding

energy per nucleon of the fused heavier nuclei is more than the binding energy per

nucleon of the lighter nuclei. This means that the final system is more tightly bound than

the initial system. Again energy would be released in such a process of fusion.

Energy will be Released

A ≤ 10 Heavier nucleus
Lighter nuclei Higher Ebn
Lower Ebn Tightly Bound
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
NUCLEAR FORCE

The attractive force which holds the nucleons together inside the nucleus is called nuclear force.

It must be strong enough to overcome the repulsion between the (positively charged) protons

and to bind both protons and neutrons into the tiny nuclear volume.

Features of the nuclear binding force:

(1) The nuclear force is much stronger than the Coulomb force acting between charges or the

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gravitational forces between masses. The nuclear binding force has to dominate over the

Coulomb repulsive force between protons inside the nucleus. This happens only because
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the nuclear force is much stronger than the coulomb force. The gravitational force is
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much weaker than even Coulomb force.
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(2) The nuclear force is a very short–range force. The nuclear force between two nucleons
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falls rapidly to zero when their distance is more than a few femtometres. This leads to

saturation of forces in a medium or a large-sized nucleus, which is the reason for the
A

constancy of the binding energy per nucleon.

A plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a function of distance is shown in

the Figure. The potential energy is a minimum at a distance ro of about 0.8 fm. This

means that the force is attractive for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are

separated by distances less than 0.8 fm.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI

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(3) The nuclear force between neutron–neutron, proton–neutron and proton–proton is
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approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge.
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Unlike Coulomb’s law or the Newton’s law of gravitation there is no simple mathematical
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form of the nuclear force.

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A
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
NUCLEAR ENERGY

The curve of binding energy per nucleon Ebn, has a long flat middle region between A = 30

and A = 170. In this region the binding energy per nucleon is nearly constant (8.0 MeV).

For the lighter nuclei region, A < 30 and for the heavier nuclei region, A > 170, the binding

energy per nucleon is less than 8.0 MeV.

Now, the greater the binding energy, the less is the total mass of a bound system, such as a

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nucleus. Consequently, if nuclei with less total binding energy transform to nuclei with greater

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binding energy, there will be a net energy release.
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This is what happens when a heavy nucleus decays into two or more intermediate mass
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fragments (fission) or when light nuclei fuse into a heavier nucleus (fusion).
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In a exothermic chemical reactions, the energies involved are in the range of electron volts. On
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the other hand, in a nuclear reaction, the energy release is of the order of MeV.
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Thus for the same quantity of matter, nuclear sources produce a million times more energy

than a chemical source.

For example, Fission of 1 kg of uranium generates 1014 J of energy ; compare it with burning

of 1 kg of coal that gives 107 J of energy.

 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
NUCLEAR FISSION

The process of breaking up of the nucleus of a heavier atom into two intermediate mass

nuclear fragments with the release of a large amount of energy is called nuclear fission.

When a uranium nucleus is bombarded with a neutron, it breaks up into two intermediate

mass nuclear fragments with the release of energy.

1 235 236 144 89

0n + 92 U 
→ 92 U 
→ 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 01 n

The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass fragments.

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1 235 236 133
0n + 92 U 
→ 92 U 
→ 51 Sb + 99
41 Nb + 4 01 n

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1 235 236 140 94
0n + 92 U 
→ 92 U 
→ 54 Xe + 38 Sr + 2 01 n
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The fragment products are radioactive nuclei ; they emit β-particles in succession to achieve
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stable end products.

The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like uranium is of the order
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of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus.

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This is estimated as follows:

Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments each of A = 120.
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Ebn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV,

Ebn for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV.

Gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.

Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240 x 0.9 or 216 MeV.

The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic energy of the fragments

and neutrons. Eventually it is transferred to the surrounding matter appearing as heat. The

source of energy in nuclear reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission. The

enormous energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission.
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
NUCLEAR FUSION

When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy is released, since the larger

nucleus is more tightly bound.

1
1H + 11 H 
→ 2
1H + 0
1e + ν + 0.42 MeV

(Two protons combine to form a deuteron & a positron with a release of 0.42 MeV energy)

2
1H + 21 H 
→ 3
2 He + 01 n + 3.27 MeV

(Two deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium & neutron with a release of

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3.27 MeV energy)

2
1H + 21 H 
→ 3
1H + 11 H + 4.03 MeV
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(Two deuterons combine to form a triton & proton with a release of 4.03 MeV energy)
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For fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that attractive short-range

nuclear force is able to affect them. However, since they are both positively charged particles,
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they experience coulomb repulsion. Therefore they must have enough energy to overcome this
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coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier depends on the charges and radii of the two

interacting nuclei.
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It can be shown, for example, that the barrier height for two protons is ~ 400 keV and is

higher for nuclei with higher charges. We can estimate the temperature at which two protons

in a proton gas would (averagely) have enough energy to overcome the coulomb barrier:

3
kT = E
2

2E 2 x 400 x 10 3 800 x 108

T= = −5
= = 30.9 x 108 K
3k 3 x 8.62 x 10 25.86

T ≈ 3 x 109 K
 ARUL INSTITUTE, CHENNAI
When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so that particles have

enough kinetic energy to overcome the coulomb repulsive behaviour, it is called

thermonuclear fusion.

Thermonuclear fusion is the source of energy of all stars including our sun.

The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the hydrogen is burned into

helium. Thus, the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen in its core.

proton–proton cycle:

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1
1H + 11 H 
→ 2
1H + 0
1e + ν + 0.42 MeV --------------------(1)

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0 0
1e + −1 e → γ + γ + 1.02 eV

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2
1H + 11 H 
→ 3
2 He + γ + 5.49 MeV --------------------(3)
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3
2 He + 32 He 
→ 4
2 He + 11 H + 11 H + 12.86 MeV --------------------(3)

For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur twice.
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If we consider the combination 2(eqn1) + 2(eqn2) + 2(eqn3) + (eqn4), the net effect is
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2 11 H + 2 11 H 
→ 2 21 H + 2 01 e + 2ν + 0.84 MeV

2 01 e + 2 −01 e 
→ 2γ + 2γ + 2.04 eV
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2 21 H + 2 11 H 
→ 2 32 He + 2γ + 10.98 MeV

3
2 He + 32 He 
→ 4
2 He + 11 H + 11 H + 12.86 MeV

4 11 H + 2 −01 e 
→ 4
2 He + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV

Thus, four protons combine to form an 42 He nucleus with a release of 26.7 MeV of energy.
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Helium is not the only element that can be synthesized in the interior of a star. As the

hydrogen in the core gets depleted and becomes helium, the core starts to cool. The star begins

to collapse under its own gravity which increases the temperature of the core. If this

temperature increases to about 108 K, fusion takes place again, this time of helium nuclei into

carbon.

The age of the sun is about 5 x 109 years and it is estimated that there is enough hydrogen in

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the sun to keep it going for another 5 billion years. After that, the hydrogen burning will stop

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and the sun will begin to cool and will start to collapse under gravity, which will raise the core
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temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into a red giant.
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CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION

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The natural thermonuclear fusion process in a star is replicated in a thermonuclear fusion

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device. In controlled fusion reactors, the aim is to generate steady power by heating the
A

nuclear fuel to a temperature in the range of 108 K. At these temperatures, the fuel is a

mixture of positive ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since

no container can withstand such a high temperature. Several countries around the world

including India are developing techniques in this connection. If successful, fusion reactors will

hopefully supply almost unlimited power to humanity.